
Class L A "^ I ^ 

Book JV\3 

Copyright N" 



cocaouGHT oEPosur. 



LOOKING TO OUR 
FOUNDATIONS 



BY 



JAMES F. MCCULLOUGH 



THE ECONOMIC PRESS 

GENEVA ILLINOIS 

1922 



Printed in the United States of America 






Copyright. 1922, bt 
James F. McCuUough 



atlff Cdnllrgiatr iprtaa 

GEORGE BANTA PUBLISHING COMPANY 

MENASHA, WIS. 



To 

My Dear Wife 

Without Whose Aid and Encouragement 

This Book 

Could Not Have Been Written 



PREFACE 

The aim of the author of this book is to awaken 
the individual citizen to a keener reahzation of his 
right, and of his duty to participate in the organization, 
direction, and control of those of our organized activi- 
ties and institutions, — civic, political, philanthropic, 
financial, and educational, — which are so essential 
to the general welfare of the people. 

On account of its relative importance, more space 
has been devoted to subject of the public schools than 
to all the other institutions combined, 

I wish to thank all those who have aided me in 
my work by answering my inquiries, furnishing infor- 
mation, statistics, pamphlets, salary schedules, reports 
of expenditures, budget estimates, etc. 

I acknowledge my debt of gratitude to those who 
rendered substantial service by reading and criticizing 
the manuscript. 

Acknowledgment is due to the publishers of LIFE 
for permission to quote from Gluyas WiUiams' Senator 
Sounder article describing some of the inside workings 
of the senate committee on the tariff. 

In the preparation of "A Historical Sketch" of the 
schoolbook publishing business, the author has quoted 
freely from that scholarly pamphlet, "An Address 
Delivered before The School Book Publishers' Associa- 
tion, 1899" by the late Mr. D. C. Heath, a successful 
and highly respected school book publisher. 
b A word of explanation should be made with regard 
to those Chapters dealing with the "School Book 



VI LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

Question." They, with others, were written with the 
intention of pubHshing them in a separate volume 
under the title, "The School Book Question." But 
when it was decided to include that subject in this 
book, it became necessary to eliminate substantially 
half of the original material to bring it within the 
available space. 

Much to the regret of the writer, he had to 
leave out a number of amusing incidents, stories, and 
personal tributes to some of those resourceful, talented, 
and lovable characters among the school book men. 

The author lays no claim to literary training. He is 
conscious of many crudities of diction, and of viola- 
tions of the simple rules of composition, for which he 
must ask the charitable indulgence of the reader. His 
one desire has been to deliver his message as forcefully 
and sincerely as he feels it. 



CONTENTS 

Chapter Page 

I. Introduction 1 

Menacing Tendencies 1 

II. Centralization of Control 15 

Political Parties 15 

Institutionalized Hospitals 20 

Centralized Authority in Churches 33 

Domination of Business Corporations ... 38 

The Brightwood Hotel Project 39 

Financing PubHc Service Corporations . . 52 

Preferred Shares of Stock 66 

III. The Administration of Public Schools ... 70 

State Departments of Education 70 

State and National Aid for Education ... 73 
State Department of Education of Ala- 
bama 83 

State Department of Education of New 

York 85 

The University of the State of New York . 86 

Pennsylvania's State School System 96 

State School System of Massachusetts ... 103 
The State School System of Connecticut. 104 
State Department of Education of Wis- 
consin 105 

State Department of Education of Min- 
nesota 106 

State Department of Education of Texas . 107 
State Department of Education of Cali- 
fornia 112 



vTii CONTENTS 

Chapter Page 
IV. Political Domination of City School Sys- 
tem 135 

Extravagant Dissipation of School Funds. 139 
Some Random Items of Expenditures .... 149 

An Urgent Plea for Economy 155 

A Basis for Apportionment of School 

Funds 158 

A Schedule of Items of School Budget 

Offered 160 

V. The Salary Question 162 

The Unjustifiable Disparity in Salaries. . 162 
A Basis for the Equitable Adjustment of 
Salaries of Teachers, Principals, and 

Superintendents 184 

VI. The Supreme Importance of the Class- 
room Teacher in any Scheme of Edu- 
cation 189 

Two Hypothetical Cases 191 

VII. The Social, Professional, and Economic 

Status of the School Teacher 203 

A National Citizens Conference on Edu- 
cation 203 

The Social Status of the Teacher 214 

The Professional Status of the Teacher. . 221 
The Economics Status of the Teacher . . . 233 

VIII. The School Book Question 234 

A Preliminary Historical Sketch 234 

Three Typical State Schoolbook Adop- 
tions 239 

The Missouri Schoolbook Adoption of 

1897 239 

The Indiana, and the Tennessee State 
Adoptions of 1899 248 



CONTENTS IX 

Chapter Page 

Indiana State Adoption 248 

Tennessee State Adoption 256 

IX. County Uniformity Adoptions 266 

Iowa County Adoptions 267 

South Dakota County Adoptions 273 

Illinois County Adoptions 279 

X. City Schoolbook Adoptions 281 

Chicago Schoolbook Adoptions 281 

Minneapolis Adoptions 297 

Cleveland Adoptions 307 

XI. On State Uniformity of Schoolbooks .... 312 

A State Uniformity School Shoe Law. . . 314 

XII. The Futility of Schoolbook Legislation ... 334 

Alabama State Adoption of 1918 351 

Mississippi State Adoption of 1920 354 

XIII. A Proposed Solution of the Schoolbook 

Question 360 



CHAPTER I 

Introduction 
menacing tendencies 

The very foundations of our most cherished institu- 
tions — popular representative government, philan- 
thropic and religious organizations, social and 
economic justice, and the public schools — are 
threatened by the following menacing tendencies: 

Concentration of wealth, authority, domination, 
and control into the hands of fewer and fewer favored 
individuals. 

The assumption of sovereign governmental func- 
tions and authority by organized minorities of citizens, 
or citizens and foreigners. And, the seeming supine 
indifference of the average citizen to, and his acquies- 
cence in, the usurpation of his inalienable rights, privi- 
leges and responsibilities. 

Powerful organizations formed for the advancement 
and profit of their own members flout the rights of the 
public, and defy the authority of the government with 
seeming impunity. 

Any organization which assumes, and is permitted 
to exercise authority to operate, or to prohibit the 
operation of any railroad or any other means of com- 
munication of a country, is the de facto government of 
that country. In the same sense, any organization 
which through its officials assumes to dictate what man 
or class of men shall be permitted to work, and what 
man or class of men shall not be permitted to persue 
their usual lawful occupations in any nation, state. 



2 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

city, county, township or village, is the de facto govern- 
ment of that nation, state, city, county, township or 
village ! 

That business agent who serves notice upon a private 
citizen that he must employ a man or any number of 
men from any particular class or organization, and that 
he shall not be permitted to employ another man of his 
own choosing, and who enforces his commands, exer- 
cises superior autocratic authority to that ever exercised 
by any State or Federal Court through the injunction, 
however arbitrary and "Sweeping" this court command 
may have seemed at the time. The Court's Injunction 
goes no further than to command the person or persons 
to whom directed, to refrain from doing some specified 
act which might interfere with the legal rights of 
another. This is as far as the Courts may go. 

But these ofiicials of ahove-the-law organizations 
issue and in most instances, to our shame, are per- 
mitted to enforce their mandates preventing law abiding 
citizens from exercising their undisputed legal privileges 
and duties! 

The great body of law abiding citizens who make 
up the vast majority of the American people, does not 
seem to possess sufficient class consciousness to enable 
it to defend itself from spoliation and civic humiliation. 

How common are the reports in the public press of 
any where from one to twenty men being held up, 
terror stricken, robbed and beaten by one lone high- 
wayman armed with an ordinary pistol! Why.'^ They 
have been taught to fear a man, or a boy with a gun ! 

The marauding and preying class understanding this 
timidity and group cowardice, takes advantage of it in 
the persuit of its criminal schemes. 

This is the pitiable condition of the people in Russia 



MENACING TENDENCIES 3 

today. A comparatively small band of well organized 
adventurers, having seized the arms, ammunition, the 
food supply, and the rail-roads, dominates, coerces, 
and despoils eighty millions of people, all that are left 
of one hundred seventy millions. 

A peaceable, industrious, frugal, and home loving 
people are ruthlessly plundered of their savings, their 
food supplies, their seed grain, and left to all the horrors 
of starvation in their famine stricken land! There is 
no such thing left in Russia as individual and commu- 
nity initiative. The individual and the mass of individ- 
uals are cowed by their criminal dictators, supported 
by their plundering, mercenary armies. 

We seem to be drifting toward the same condition 
of affairs in this country. It is a fact, well understood 
by thoughtful men, that a small body of men with evil 
design organized and armed for the purpose could take 
physical possession of New York City, its police, ar- 
senals, railroad terminals, ferries, docks and ware- 
houses. 

Now let us suppose that the master mind of the 
dictators should offer the criminally inclined the privi- 
lege of unrestrained pillage and rapine on condition 
that they join their army; that the food supply is in 
their hands and none but their loyal followers may eat. 

You would have Petrograd and Moscow over again ! 

Any city of a million population or less might be 
taken, including its poHce force, its people over-awed 
and cowed by an armed force of less than one thousand 
men, placed at strategic points and acting in concert. 

The law abiding citizens are not armed, while the 
criminal class and the criminally inclined are always 
armed and amply supplied with ammunition. 

In most of our states they have laws patterned 



4 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

after the iniquitous "Sullivan Law" of New York State. 
The practical effect of this law has been to disarm all 
law-abiding citizens, and to arm and outfit every 
vicious criminal for the safer pursuit of his nefarious 
business. 

It is safe to assume that this law, and similar laws 
in the other states, must have had the influential backing 
of the Ancient and Accepted Order of Footpads, Bur- 
glars and Yeggman, and of its criminal lawyers who 
thrive upon the loot and plunder of its active members ! 

These laws make it a criminal offense for a private 
citizen to own, possess or to carry any sort of a weapon 
of defense, or to use any such weapon either for defend- 
ing his family, his home, or his own person. Should a 
private citizen so far forget the "Sullivan Law" and 
its powerful backing as to attempt to defend himself 
with a good reliable automatic pistol, his assailant 
could have him arrested. The thug could appear, with 
his criminal lawyer, as the prosecuting witness ! It is a 
crime in New York for an honest citizen to resist suc- 
cessfully the demands of a duly authorized and recog- 
nized member of the A. A. O. F. B. & Y. 

It must have been under some similar stress of con- 
ditions that the Second Amendment to the Constitution 
of the United States was submitted to the States and 
ratified, which amendment clearly states that, — "the 
right of the people to bear arms shall not be infringed." 

The right to bear arms is a sacred right; and the 
laws should protect its citizens in that right. 

Our government should encourage the people to 
own fire arms and not only that, it should encourage 
the young men and women to learn to handle a rifle 
and a pistol, and to use them effectively! 



MENACING TENDENCIES 5 

Every boy should be instructed and carefully trained 
in the manly art of self defense. 

What we need in this country more than any other 
one thing, is less individual and community timidity, 
and more men and women of intelligence, moral cour- 
age, and the physical prowess that will enable them to 
stand foursquare for the defense and maintenance of 
their political, civic, and economic rights and privi- 
leges. 

A community, county, city, state, or the Nation is 
no stronger than the sum total of its individual citizens. 

The great body of law-abiding, straightforward, 
self-supporting citizens give too little attention, time, 
thought, and money to the subject of practical politics. 

There is no other one subject of more immediate 
and vital importance to the liberty loving citizen than 
the question of good government. There is no greater 
impending calamity than the threatened destruction of 
our representive free government at the hands of weak 
and sordid minded officials, their subservient ap- 
pointees, and their masters, the professional political 
bosses, supported by their mercenary tax-consuming 
hordes of contractors, supply concerns, experts, political 
attorneys, investigators, and sundry others of their 
tribe, too numerous to specify. 

In its organization, intent, and purpose, this govern- 
ment of ours is supposed to be a Representative Repub- 
lic. Outside of the original Town Meeting, in those 
scattered communities where that "School of practical 
politics" has survived, it is a mistake to call our form 
of government a Democracy. 

According to the fundamental laws of the land, the 
source of all governmental authority is the expressed 
will of a majority of the people. But as a matter of fact, 



6 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

the people are governed, or misgoverned, by officials 
and representatives selected by a very small minority 
of the legal voters, and by an ever increasing army of 
officious officials for whose selection and appointment 
the people have no voice, theoretically nor actually. 

These officials, however or by whomsoever chosen 
and appointed, are clothed with authority to enact and 
to enforce laws, to sit in judgment over the property 
and civil rights, the personal liberty, and even the lives 
of the people; to levy and collect taxes, fees, penalties, 
and fines of all sorts and descriptions; to issue and to 
sell bonds; and to appropriate and spend all public 
funds! And yet, the great majority of the intelligent, 
industrious, self-supporting, and law-abiding citizens 
hardly gives a passing thought, and takes no active 
part, in the selection and choice of honest and capable 
persons to stand as candidates for these important 
positions of responsibility and trust. 

It is a well known fact that those people most inter- 
ested in the distribution of political favors and patron- 
age, are the most active and effective political workers; 
and that those men who are selfishly interested in the 
expenditure of public funds, dominate and control the 
nominations of candidates for public office. 

The party candidates are usually chosen at private 
caucus meetings of the party committee and the party 
leaders, or the dominant party faction leader. It is in 
these caucus meetings, that the question is settled as 
to who shall and who shall not be permitted to run for 
office, or at any rate, which candidates shall be given 
the support of the party organization, or of some par- 
ticular faction of that party. 

It is evident that the candidate must submit to all 
the demands of the caucus members, and satisfy these 



MENACING TENDENCIES 7 

important personages that in return for the support of 
the "Organization," he will acknowledge his obligation 
to that "Organization" or to the particular faction of 
that "Organization." He must satisfy these party 
bosses as to his loyalty to the "Organization." This 
means, in practical politics, that the candidate, if 
elected to oflfice, will be "open to suggestions, and 
amenable to reason!" In other words, that in his 
official acts, appointments, and decisions he will be 
governed by the wishes of his political sponsors. 

Under these conditions, is it surprising that can- 
didates of doubtful ability, questionable integrity, and 
pliable civic scruples, are so frequently chosen by these 
political bosses ! 

Men of too strict integrity, civic honesty, moral 
force, and independence of thought and action are not 
favorites with political manipulators because they are 
less likely to submit to the dictation of selfishly inter- 
ested political bosses. 

As stated before, the candidates are usually chosen 
at more or less secret conferences, or caucuses of 
political party leaders and their henchmen, before the 
day of the primaries. 

The great body of the membership of the political 
parties have had no voice in the selection of any of the 
candidates on their tickets. The voters are solicited 
and urged to "Turn out and vote," and thus ratify 
the party nominations ! 

A typical illustration of this condition of political 
affairs, is furnished by the campaign for the choice of 
candidates at the Primary election in Illinois in the 
spring of 1922. 

On the Republican ticket, there were three factions 
each urging the voters to support their particular can- 



8 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

didates, and all of these factional leaders working either 
to capture, or to hold the control of the party "Organi- 
zation": 

The Thonipson-Liindin faction, representing the 
mayor and his City Hall "Organization" in the city of 
Chicago and in Cook county ; and in the State, the same 
"Organization," known as the Thompson-Lundin-Small 
faction, was making a desperate fight to secure the 
nomination of its candidates for the State Legislature. 
It was apparent that this faction was concentrating 
its efforts upon this one object; the Crow-Brundage 
faction, headed and sponsored by the States attorney 
of Cook County, and the Attorney General of Illinois, 
had its candidates all down the line, — for city, county, 
and state offices; and, the Deneen faction, headed and 
sponsored by ex-Governor Deneen. 

It is beside our purpose to comment upon the issues 
and the rival claims of these three political factions, 
further than to direct the reader's attention to the sig- 
nificant fact that that great body of Republican voters 
who must earn their living outside of politics, and 
upon whose votes these party leaders must depend to 
elect their favored candidates had no voice in the 
choice of the candidates for the offices or for the party 
organization committees ! 

The conditions were substantially the same in the 
Democratic party. There were the "Regulars," and 
"The Citizens" factions in the City, and in the County. 

Another significant fact worthy of note is that all of 
these party factions are headed and dominated by 
office holders or professional politicians ! 

The original theory of our government, that its 
public officials are honored public servants, seems to 
have been lost sight of both by the people and their 



MENACING TENDENCIES 9 

public servants. No sooner is a governor elected than 
he sets about building up a "Machine" or an "Organi- 
zation" to control the Legislature, an independent 
branch of the government. His excuse is that as gover- 
nor, he is the responsible head of his political party ! 

The same position is assumed by the mayors of the 
larger cities; and the presumption is not unheard of in 
National affairs ! 

It is a serious question whether or not all public 
officials and government employees should not be 
excluded from all participation in political party affairs. 

Certainly, no office holder or government appointee, 
or employee should be eligible to sit as a delegate in a 
political convention, and surely not as a member of a 
Constitutional Convention ! 

The organization and management of a political 
party should be free from the domination and control 
of office holders, and their appointees. Some students 
of politics and government go so far as to advocate 
the disfranchisement of all office holders, and their 
appointees and employees. Whether this is advisable 
or practicable or not, is a question; but there is no 
doubt but that some means will have to be found to 
curb the domination of political parties by office holders 
who have been raised to their positions of honor and 
trust by the favor of their political party. 

This separation of all office holders, their appointees, 
and political henchmen from participation in the 
affairs of the political party which elected them would 
tend to free the political parties from the domination 
and control of the office holding class and the office 
holders' personal organizations. This would be a 
long step toward the reinstatement of representative 
free, — "government of the people, by the people, and 
for the people !" 



10 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

As deplorable and menacing as this tendency 
toward oflBcial usurpation of authority has become, 
the people have no one to blame but themselves. The 
people who should take the initiative in civic and politi- 
cal affairs, shun and neglect to perform their duty, 
and shift the responsibility to other shoulders. 

If those citizens who ought to take an active and 
aggressive part in the nomination and election of 
candidates for office would exercise their right and 
duty, there would soon be a noticeable improvement 
in our political affairs. 

The great obstacle to be overcome is the timidity 
of the majority of the law-abiding citizens who make 
their living outside of politics. They fail to show the 
requisite amount of moral courage and physical stamina 
to enable them to meet the arrogant opposition of or- 
ganized political strategists. Right here is where our 
boasted universal suffrage falls short in practice. 

Graft, under the cover of its many disguises and 
devices is the malignant canker gnawing at the vitals 
of our political, social, and economic life. Graft and 
insatiable greed for money are a growing menace to our 
civilization. 

It was graft that destroyed the great Russian Em- 
pire. It was graft in Russian official life that made it 
possible for Japan to defeat and humiliate that once 
powerful nation. 

The Russian people had been heavily taxed for 
years to build and equip modern dreadnaughts and 
other ships of war; to purchase and manufacture field 
and heavy artillery, rifles and equipment for large 
armies, and to build armories and army barracks; in 
short, to make every preparation for war. 



MENACING TENDENCIES 11 

It is an open secret that the vast sums of appro- 
priated funds were spent and dissipated, and after 
war was declared the fact came to light that Russia 
had made very Httle preparation for war! 

The dreadnaughts that had been dearly purchased 
and paid for, named, equipped, and manned — on paper 
— had no material existence! 

In the great storage yards where the unmounted 
cannon were supposed to be kept in readiness for im- 
mediate mounting for use when needed, there were 
found acres covered with wooden cannon, turned from 
logs to look like real cannon! These dummy cannon 
had all passed inspection and all exacting vouchers 
were, "officially examined and found correct!" Similar 
conditions were found to exist in other military equip- 
ment and army supplies. This simply means that the 
appropriations of the hard earned tax money of the 
people were spent, presumably, for war ships, arms and 
munitions, army supplies of all sorts, in regular routine 
manner, the vouchers all properly examined, found 
correct, and officially signed ; but only a mere fractional 
part of the very essential materials were ever delivered ! 

The potentially great Russian Empire was defeated 
and doomed to destruction as the direct consequences of 
graft. 

It is generally known that in the late World War, the 
brave soldiers of the Russian armies were defeated, 
massacred, and practically annihilated by the German 
armies under the generalship of Hindenburg, partly 
because the Russian soldiers were practically without 
arms, ammunition, food, and other essential equipment; 
but mainly for the reason that these millions of men 
upon whom the destiny of Russia depended were 



12 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

deliberately sent to the slaughter by grafting govern- 
ment high officials! 

Graft had honeycombed the whole Russian bureau- 
cratic official body politic. 

Graft had infinitely more to do with the downfall 
of the Russian Empire than czarism, anarchy, com- 
munism, and bolshevism combined ! 

The indescribably wretched conditions in Russia 
today are but the logical outcome of long years of 
despotic, centralized, bureaucratic rule in which the 
official life was permeated with insatiable greed for 
more power, and for larger opportunities for graft ! 

The Bolsheviki terrorist dictatorship is the ille- 
gitimate offspring of that old debauched official life. 

Graft has been done away with, but at what a 
fearful cost in money, human life, public and private 
property, and individual and national honor and 
honesty! There is no further excuse for the official 
grafter. The officials simply take private property 
with government approval, and human life as well 
whenever there is any slight pretext for doing so. The 
major crimes as listed in civilized countries are re- 
garded as practical morality by the Bolsheviki ! 

Graft is a much more serious menace to the people 
of this country than all the Emma Goldmans, Alexan- 
der Berkmans, "Bill" Heywoods, anarchists, commun- 
ists, I. W. W.'s and other destructive radical classes 
combined. 

The grafter, and this term includes the giver as 
well as the taker, is the most insidious and dangerous 
enemy of organized society. 

The word "graft" is used in its generally accepted 
meaning in this country as the "Acquisition of money, 
position, promotion, etc., by dishonest or unjust means 



MENACING TENDENCIES 13 

as by actual theft or by taking advantage of public 
office or of position of trust or employment to obtain 
fees, perquisites, profits on contracts, or legislation, pay 
for work not done or service not performed etc. ; illegal 
or unfair practice for personal advantage; also any- 
thing thus gained." — Webster's New International 
Dictionary. 

The aim of the writer has been to direct the atten- 
tion of the public to some of the most insidious abuses 
and destructive tendencies that threaten to undermine 
the very foundations of our American Public Schools; 
and to suggest a possible line of action that would 
correct these abuses, and check these evil tendencies. 

In order to do this more effectively, it has seemed 
necessary to call attention to sunilar abuses and 
destructive tendencies in other departments of govern- 
ment, and in the management and control of other pub- 
lic and semi-public institutions. For after all, the 
abuses and the threatening tendencies in the manage- 
ment and control of the public schools, are only puny 
imitations of the more flagrant abuses and destructive 
tendencies that have grown up and become entrenched 
in the other departments of government; and in the 
management and control of other institutions. 

Criticism, however candid and well meant, should be 
constructive if its object is to prove helpful in the per- 
manent improvement of the administration of civic, 
political, and economic affairs. 

For this reason, criticism has been directed at abuses 
rather than at individuals, for after all is said and done, 
are not those in positions of trust and authority our 
chosen agents and representatives? And, considering 
our part in their nomination and election, do they not 
render as efficient service as we have any right to expect ! 



14 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

There are a great many high minded, honest, 
devoted and unselfish men and women in the pubhc 
service. There are and have been many honorable and 
honored statesmen and public officials whose unselfish 
devotion to the service is above suspicion. These 
worthy men and women deserve and should be given 
the sincere gratitude of all friends of liberty and good 
government. 

The difference between a well-ordered and honest- 
ly-administered government, and a dishonestly and mal- 
administered government, is the difference between 
light and darkness; virtue and vice; and truth and a lie! 

The kind of government all depends upon the civic 
ideals, and the moral character of those chosen to 
administer that government! 



CHAPTER II 

CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 

There is the ever present temptation in all organized 
human institutions gradually, but inevitably to cen- 
tralize the domination and control into the hands of 
fewer and fewer individuals. 

The plausible pretext used by those seeking to 
obtain authority, domination, and control is expressed 
in the well worn phrases, "Strengthening the organ- 
ization," and "Unifying and simplifying the organi- 
zation!" 

POLITICAL PARTIES 

A common and familiar illustration of the deadening 
effect of assumed authority by one or more leaders to 
dominate and control is furnished by the conduct and 
management of political parties. The mischief begins 
right at the foundation of the party organization, — the 
precinct committee. The precinct committeeman 
usually does not represent the voters of his party of his 
precinct, but a faction or the faction leader, or "boss" 
at the County seat, or at the City Hall. 

These committeemen delegate "power to act" to 
their chairman, the Town, the Village, the Ward, and 
city committees each to its chairman, the successive 
committees surrender their "power to act" to their 
chairman. These Chairmen of Committees assume the 
position of "bosses," or political dictators! They 
proceed to build up an Organization of favorites 
responsible to the Organization, and this means 
responsible to the "boss" or the "bosses" as the case 
may be. 

15 



16 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

This "ring" soon becomes so thoroughly entrenched 
and buttressed in authority through its control of 
the party Organization that it assumes to be the 
political party! It controls the election machinery, 
dictates the nomination of candidates for the oflSces, 
and the appointments by elected officials, assesses 
contributions from office holders and prospective 
candidates for office, and from public employees. 
It "solicits" contributions from bidders and prospective 
bidders for contracts for public work of every sort or 
for furnishing supplies and materials of all kinds. 

These vast sums of money levied and collected for 
the support of the Organization are accounted for 
only in a vague sort of way, — "Receipts" — so much; 
"Expenditures" so much; "Deficit" so much! 

The rise, formation, successes, and the overthrow 
of political parties may be traced from their formation, 
based upon fair and full representation, a frank and 
sincere statement of principles which appeals to the 
sympathies, ideals, and the intelligence of the voters, 
winning their approval and support, and the election 
of their candidates. 

This political victory is usually followed by a 
satisfactory administration, party pledges and principles 
are faithfully followed, and as a result of its clean record, 
the party's candidates are again successful at the polls 
and the party is "Indorsed by the people." 

At about this time in the history of the party the 
practical political schemers begin to lay their plans to 
gain control of the party Organization. Upon the 
specious pretext of the necessity for unifying and 
strengthening the Organization these schemers are 
permitted to "Perfect the Organization" so thoroughly 
that it is from now on an effective political machine. 



CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 17 

directed and responsive only to "Machine politicians!" 
The machine is able to appease the opposition and 
criticism that its high-handed acts may have aroused 
by the leaders plea "for the good of the party." 

This party is again successful in the election. The 
machine claims the credit for that success, and the 
party is now controlled and dominated by a few 
practical politicians. 

Principle and principles are thrown to the winds, 
and platitudinous vote catching slogans invented to 
serve in their stead, such as, "A nickel car fare," "85 
cent gas," "Subsidized Press," and "A dollar's worth of 
service from every dollar of taxes," and many others, 
none of which was intended to mean anything after 
the election. Paid and experienced workers are 
stationed at the polls to see to it that every name on the 
poll list is voted and recorded ! 

All the strength and resources of the machine 
are used to "Win the election" so that the machine 
may control the offices, the patronage, the contracts, 
the public funds, and the election machinery. 

The political power that was originally vested in the 
individual members of the party, and forfeited by them, 
was siezed upon and used in the selection of the precinct 
committeemen. These committeemen delegated their 
authority to the chairman, and so on up till it was 
lodged with the party bosses. Those worthy gentlemen 
assume and exercise autocratic domination and control, 
and nothing short of the disruption of the party and its 
over-whelming defeat can wrest that dommation and 
control from them. "Rule or Ruin" is the traditional 
policy of the professional politician. 

The life, usefulness and the continued existence of 
the political party means nothing to these professional 



18 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

polititcians unless they can control the oflfices, the 
funds, the patronage, and the "boodle." The political 
principles and patriotic ideals upon which the party 
was founded has become as, "Sounding brass or a 
tinkling cymbal" for those zealous, unsophisticated 
supporters of those principles. 

The time inevitably comes when that political 
party degenerates into a highly organized political 
"machine" for pillage and graft for the personal benefit 
of a favored few who sit within the inner-most circle of 
the decadent political party. The history of all political 
parties teaches that, in spite of its "Perfect Organi- 
zation," control of patronage, its power to reward its 
loyal supporters and to punish its critics, its army of 
"hangers on," and employees, its control of the election 
machinery, and its organization of loyal party workers, 
that political party is doomed to inglorious defeat! 

The defeat is made certain by the opposition votes 
of many of its former friends and loyal supporters who 
have become disgusted with the selfish greed and 
irresponsible dictation of the party machine. 

The responsibility for the condition of affairs in this 
political party rests upon every member of it who 
either refused, or what amounts to the same thing, 
neglected to do his duty to his political party, to his 
country, to his family, and to himself by failing to 
take an active part in the organization of his party in 
his election precinct and right on up through the suc- 
cessive political units. 

Our country is essentially a government by politi- 
cal parties. The officials of the Legislative and the 
Executive departments are practically all responsible 
to their political party for their election to oflBce, and 
they must depend upon their political party for 



CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 19 

reelection. The judges of the Federal courts, and more 
and more of the State courts, are supposed to be less 
responsible to political party dictation. There is a 
growing sentiment among the people that the judges 
of the courts should be freed in so far as possible from 
the influence of party politics. 

A recent illustration of this growing sentiment for 
an independent judiciary, was the overwhelming defeat 
in 1921 of the Thompson-Lundin "Machine picked 
slate" of candidates for Circuit Judges in Cook County, 
including the city of Chicago, Illinois, by a Non- 
partisan Coalition ticket of candidates for the judge- 
ships. 

When we come to consider the tremendous power 
and influence wielded by political parties upon the 
direction, management, and administration of our 
government, for good or ill, we realize how necessary 
it is that every good citizen should shoulder his load of 
responsibility in the direction and management of the 
affairs of his chosen political party. There is no other 
means whereby one may hope to make his influence 
felt in a constructive way in the interest of good 
government. 

The place to begin is right in one's local voting 
unit, precinct, district, or ward. One should get 
acquainted with the local party committeeman, and 
let him understand that he wishes to take an active 
part in the affairs of the party. He should insist upon 
being notified of all meetings of the party or party 
leaders. 

Every self-respecting member of a political party 
should assume and maintain his right to a voice in the 
initial plans and action of his party. It may be 
necessary to take a militant stand for his rights. The 



20 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

"spoils" politicians and their henchmen are apt to be a 
boisterous and bullying bunch organized and armed to 
brook no opposition to their selfish schemes. 

INSTITUTIONALIZED HOSPITALS 

The same tendency toward institutionalization, 
crystalization, and perfunctory "Red Tape" is notice- 
able in the conduct and management of many of the 
large public and private hospitals. 

The humanitarian sentiment that underlies the 
establishment of hospitals for the treatment, care, and 
comfort of the sick and injured is highly commendable. 
The public has been liberal and in some instances 
lavish with its appropriations, donations, and bequests 
for the construction, support and maintenance of 
public and semi-public hospitals, and for the continuous 
founding and endowment of new and specially equipped 
ones. There can be no doubt as to the charitable 
motives and benificent intentions of those who thus 
contribute so generously. 

But, as it is likely to be with other charities and 
philanthropies, the public is inclined to be more liberal 
in its gifts of money and property than it is in its 
ordinary care and precaution necessary to safeguard 
that money, and make sure that it is faithfully used for 
the purposes for which it was solicited and donated. 

Hospitals are a generally recognized benevolent 
institution of our civilization, which are coming to be 
ever more of a necessity in our very complex life and 
manner of living. 

While it is an open question whether a public 
hospital is a better place for the treatment and care of 
patients who might be treated and cared for in their 
own homes, there can be no question but that a benefi- 



CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 21 

cently managed and conducted hospital is a necessity 
for that great class of persons who live in temporary 
makeshift homes, and for those who have no homes. 

A hospital is usually started to meet an immediate 
need in a particular locality, and while it is passing 
through its earlier stages the governing thought of its 
management is usually to render efficient service and to 
see that each patient shall receive individual attention 
and tender care. The personal needs and requests of 
the patient are given sympathetic consideration, and 
the most natural solicitude of friends and relatives is 
respected, and their reasonable requests granted. 

So long as a hospital is managed and conducted 
along these lines it is fulfilling the purpose for which 
hospitals are supposed to be founded. It earns a good 
name and its reputation attracts patients from an ever 
widening circle. 

It is at about this stage in its development that the 
temptation comes to modify the ideals of the manage- 
ment, from that of a benevolent to that of a commercial 
enterprise. The management finds that it can begin to 
select its patients, and thereby increase its income by 
increasing its charges and fees, after the manner of other 
enterprises conducted for profit! 

The management resolves to enlarge the plant, 
there-by increasing the number of private rooms, 
equipping new and more elaborate operating rooms, 
laboratories, and nurses' dormitories. 

The usual appeals are made to the public for 
donations of money to pay for these extensions and 
improvements. 

In its prospectus the management lays stress upon 
the fact that the hospital does a large amount of charity 



22 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

work; and that it proposes to enlarge this department 
of its work! 

As usual the campaign for funds is successful. The 
amount asked for is raised. The new buildings, 
additions, and improvements are constructed as 
planned, and the new equipment installed. 

At this stage earnest and heated discussions begin 
among the members of the hospital board as to whether 
the new and enlarged hospital shall continue to be 
conducted along benevolent and philanthropic lines 
or shall be reorganized along modern business efficiency 
lines. As there has been some "new blood" injected 
into the board of managers by the addition of new 
members, the "progressives" win in the final decision. 
It is decided that the new hospital shall be conducted on 
"modern business principles." This means, of course, 
that sentimental ideals shall be discarded, and business 
methods introduced. 

The modern business efficiency motto is, — "You 
can't mix sentiment with business." 

An efficiency expert is employed at a fanciful salary 
as superintendent and placed in charge. He proceeds 
to put his efficiency ideas into effect at once. All 
expenses, except his own, are "cut" in all directions, and 
the receipts increased by increasing the charges, fees, 
etc., to enable the expert superintendent to make a 
financial showing to justify his salary and policies. He 
suggests that the number of graduate nurses be reduced, 
and their responsibilities put upon the student nurses; 
that the quantity and the quality of food be reduced for 
the ordinary patients, at any rate; and that other 
"economies" be rigidly enforced. 

Upon his recommendation, the services of a Bureau 
are engaged to investigate the financial standing of 



CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 23 

patients and of those responsible for their expenses, and 
to make confidential reports that will enable the 
management, the attending physicians, and the surgeon 
to determine how much to charge the patient for the 
services rendered! 

Obviously that hospital is no longer purely a 
humanitarian institution for the amelioration of human 
suffering and the sympathetic treatment and care of the 
sick. With all due deference to the religious denomina- 
tion, society, noteworthy personage or place whose 
name that hospital bears, it has become "reorganized" 
and systematized into a mere soulless business enter- 
prise. Patients are assigned to rooms after the manner 
that guests are assigned in the large hotels, not 
according to their necessities, but according to the 
amount of money they can be induced to pay. All of 
the less expensive rooms are usually "occupied," and 
the helpless patient is induced to take a more expensive 
room than his circumstances justify. 

There was a meeting of an association of superin- 
tendents of hospitals held in one of our large cities 
recently. The newspapers published an interview with 
one of these superintendents. Among the statements 
credited to him, was one to the effect that the public 
must expect to have to pay first class hotel prices for 
room and attendance at a first class hospital. The 
impression received from reading the interview was 
that this statement was intended as the "Key note" of 
the hospital superintendents' convention! 

If this worthy gentleman were speaking for the 
many privately owned and privately financed hospitals, 
sanitariums, and sanatorlums that are organized and 
operated as private business enterprises, and advertised 
as such, no exception can be taken to his statement. 



24 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

But if his statement is intended as an expression 
of the thought of the expert superintendents of general 
pubhc and semi-pubhe hospitals supported wholly 
or in part by donations from the public, the gentleman 
and those for whom he made the statement credited to 
him, should be set right in their thinking. 

These gentlemen need to be reminded that a hospital 
that depends upon solicited donations and private 
bequests for its support is, or should be, a benevolent 
institution founded, operated and managed for the 
single purpose of providing an asylum for the treatment 
and care of the sick and injured; it is a humanitarian 
enterprise. 

A first class hotel, on the other hand, is a straight- 
out commercial enterprise, and is conducted primarily 
for profit! The men and women who subscribe for 
shares of stock, and purchase the bonds do so with the 
thought that they are making an investment from 
which they expect to receive returns in the form of 
dividends and interest. If the hotel is honestly and 
eflficiently managed, the stockholders expect the 
management to earn profits large enough each year to 
pay all fixed charges, including interest on the bonds 
and an installment toward the sinking fund provided 
for their redemption, a liberal amount for depreciation 
of the building with its fixtures and furnishings; and to 
to pay the promised dividends on the shares of common 
stock. 

Every patron and guest of the hotel is charged for 
the accommodations and service he receives, an amount 
estimated to fully cover the cost of that accommodation 
and service and a gross profit sufficient to provide for 
all overhead charges. And, when not over done, that 



CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 25 

is the scientific and fair method of fixing, — "prices for 
room and attendance" at first class hotels. 

Not only does a first class hotel provide for "room 
and attendance" of its guests but it provides lavishly 
for their comfort, convenience, sumptuously furnished 
parlors, ladies' waiting rooms with attendants, spacious 
lobby and lounge rooms, sanitary washrooms and 
toilets, telephone and telegraph booths with service, 
news and cigar stands, page service, and many other 
conveniences which are not provided nor expected in a 
first class hospital. 

This is not intended as a justification nor an apology 
for the gross profiteering practiced upon the public 
by many of the hotels of all classes and sizes. It is 
well understood that their charges in many instances are 
extortionate. The management of these hotels takes 
advantage of extraordinary conditions, and urgent 
necessities of their patrons, to demand extortionate 
rates for curtailed accommodations. 

This brings up the question whether or not the 
State ought to regulate the prices that hotels may 
charge. There can be no doubt as to the need for 
some effectual remedy for the spoliation of the traveling 
public by the greedy landlords of transient hotels. 

Many think that Government control and regu- 
lation has proven a dangerous expedient in so far as 
railroads, street car lines, and public utilities are 
concerned; and that the public has paid dearly for all 
the "Regulation and Adjustment" of passenger and 
freight rates, and public utility charges of all sorts 
thus far. 

A law that would compel the manager of a hotel to 
publish conspicuously a tariff of his rate of charges, 
furnish each guest at the time of his assignment to a 



26 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

room a copy of that tariff with his rate of charge 
officially checked on it; and that would prohibit any 
manager from increasing his rates without first pub- 
lishing his new schedule of rates for at least sixty days 
before the new rates could lawfully be made effective; 
and that would prohibit the manager of a hotel from 
temporarily increasing his rates for extraordinary 
occasions such as conventions, festivals or other large 
gatherings, would do much toward curbing the rapa- 
cious practices of these gentry. 

A State Commission clothed with authority to 
hear and to investigate complaints against hotels, 
and to adjust rates that hotels could charge as, — "fair 
and reasonable" would be what "spoils" politicians 
aptly term, "Puddin' with brandy sauce" for both the 
members of the commission, and the proprietors of the 
hotels as well! 

After this digression let us return to the consider- 
ation of the "room and attendance one receives at a 
first class hospital." 

A room with its furnishings in a hospital is not to be 
compared with that in a first class hotel. The attend- 
ance and service varies so widely that it is rather 
difficult to make a fair comparison. The major part 
of the service and attendance one receives in a first 
class hospital is that rendered by those over worked and 
under paid student nurses, and the young internes who 
are serving their time for experience. But this service, 
costs the management little or nothing. As a matter of 
fact it is a source of income to the hospital. No other 
class of students or apprentices pays so dearly for their 
training as student nurses. They do the heft of the 
rough work, and furnish the most part of the care and 
attention that the patient receives so far as the hospital 



CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 27 

is concerned. Of course, one has the privilege of hiring 
the services of a graduate nurse, or two of them, for 
that matter; but so has one at a first class hotel, or 
at his home. 

These efficiency expert superintendents of first 
class hospitals would better offer some other excuse for 
their charges than, — "room and attendance at a first 
class hotel!" 

An efficiency expert superintendent evidently needs 
to be gently reminded that he is not expected to earn 
from the patients of his first class hospital dividends 
on common and preferred stock, interest and sinking 
fund allowance for bonds, taxes, and other overhead 
expenses which the management of first class hotels 
must include when determining prices for room and 
service. 

Another noticeable abuse in the highly organized 
commercial hospitals is the autocratic or oligarchic 
domination by some one head surgeon, or a little 
clique of physicans and specialists. They do great 
team work by working to each others interests by 
suggesting the services of one another to their "fat" 
patients, and thus keeping other physicians out. These 
favored physicians regard their particular public 
hospital as their private preserve. 

A chief surgeon will perform anywhere from three 
to ten operations in a forenoon, when business is good, 
at private fees ranging from the minimum of one 
hundred (100) dollars up to two thousand (2000) 
dollars, depending upon the financial rating furnished 
by the service bureau. 

The ordinary ward, and the little or no pay cases, 
are likely to be turned over to the assistants to practice 
upon, unless there should chance to be an unusually 



28 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

"pretty" case that the chief might wish to perform at 
a cHnic for pubhcity. 

It is not very apparent to the lay mind that there 
is much if any charity work on the part of a surgeon 
who may perform an operation upon some poor patient 
at the request of the hospital authorities, when that 
hospital assembles, prepares, and turns over to that 
surgeon from three to ten "fat" fee patients in one 
forenoon ! 

One might fill a good sized book with well authen- 
ticated cases of neglect, callous indifference to intense 
suffering that might have been relieved by proper 
attention, misleading and false reports to relatives and 
friends of dying patients; but as these are the natural 
results of the fetish worship of highly organized routine 
system, and the relative nonimportance of the in- 
dividual patient, it would not be worth while to go into 
that phase of the subject here. 

The point that needs to be emphasized is that the 
individual patient is often lost sight of as an individual 
in an institutionalized, and commercialized hospital, 
unless that patient is a favored patient who occupies a 
high priced room and pays liberally for special service 
and care. The average patient is "tagged" in the 
receiving room, and is the victim of impersonal routine 
until he has the good fortune to be discharged "cured" 
or suffers a worse fate! 

There is a wide gap maintained between the favored 
patients in the private rooms, and those unfortunate 
patients who are consigned to the wards. The contrast 
in the kind of food served to the two classes of patients 
is a fair indication of the relative care and attention 
meted out to the two classes! It does not seem to 
occur to the management of this type of hospital that 



CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 29 

the reluctant appetite of a weakened patient in a ward 
might be tempted by the sight and scent of the deH- 
cately prepared food served in that same hospital 
to a less enfeebled patient in a private room! 

In like manner a patient who needs the seclusion 
and rest that only a private room can afford must 
take his chances in a large ward simply because he 
can not afford the expense of a private room; while 
another favored patient who is merely a guest of the 
hospital for observation to see if there might possibly 
be something the matter with him, occupies a private 
room in the hospital. 

It would seem that it should be considered not 
unreasonable for the public to expect that all patients 
admitted to a hospital supported in part by donations, 
bequests, and contributions should be given accom- 
modations, care and treatment based upon their neces- 
sities rather upon their social or financial rating. It is 
a questionable policy, to express it mildly, that allows a 
physician, surgeon, or other person to demand special 
accommodations and care and attention for a patient 
simply for the reason that the patient is socially or 
professionally prominent, or wealthy, or the protege of 
such an one. 

It all comes right back to the question of the ideals 
of the management of a hospital. There is all the 
difference in the world between a hospital conducted 
upon sincere humanitarian principles, and another 
hospital that has forsaken its benificent ideals for 
the more alluring highway of, "Modern business 
efficiency methods," "Standardization," "Systemi- 
zation," and "Commercialization." The size of a 
hospital is not the determining factor as to which of 
these two classes a particular hospital may belong so 



30 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

much as it is the ideals and personal character of the 
men and women who bear the responsibility for its 
conduct and management. The tendency and the 
temptation is for the administration of a hospital 
to subside into impersonal routine in the care of 
patients as it grows in size and reputation. 

Another phase of this subject has a direct bearing 
upon the public welfare from the standpoint of soci- 
ology; and that is the outrageously excessive charges, 
fees, and attendant expenses in obstetrical cases. 

The following incident related by one young married 
man in a letter to one of his intimate friends states the 
case frankly and fairly: "A friend of mine in the office 
became a father recently, at a cost of approximately 
five hundred dollars, with hospital bills, trained nurse 
and doctor bills. This friend earns forty dollars a 
week! It will take all this young man can possibly 
save in a whole year to pay the expenses of this one 
child's birth, and yet they blame the present generation 
for having race suicidal tendencies ! No, *** we are not 
thinking of children just now ! It is too bad as we are 
both anxious to have children, and don't like to wait; 
if we want a baby these days we do not consult our 
desires but our bank balance, and our bank balance is 
such that it can't be done, so there is an end of it. 
******* Birth control! We don't need birth control; 
what we need is a radical reduction of the high cost of 
births!" 

This is a forceful indictment of our present day 
social and unjust economic conditions. The two young 
married couples referred to are fairly representitive of 
that great class of young couples, educated, self 
respecting, practical thinking, struggling to "get a 
start" in life, own a home, and rear a family. They are 



CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 31 

the type of citizens that should have large families of 
children. They could and would do their best to 
provide for their children, educate them, and give 
them a fair start in life; and best of all, give to their 
offspring the priceless heritage of intelligent and healthy 
parentage. 

Society, for its own protection and preservation, 
should see to it that every encouragement is offered 
to such young couples to realize their laudable 
ambitions. 

In the countries of the old world, and in this country 
until comparatively recent years, the midwife was 
regarded as the proper person to officiate at births, and 
the physician was rarely called in except at the request 
of the midwife when the mother or infant needed 
medical or surgical attention. 

In this country, so called health laws have prac- 
tically eliminated the old time midwife who formerly 
officiated at child birth, and intentionally created a 
monopoly of their serviceable occupation for the 
medical profession. 

The widespread popular notion that child birth 
must be attended by all the accompaniments of high 
priced professional skill, expensive surroundings, and 
exclusive care and attention is the result of subtly 
laid propaganda. Both socially and professionally 
the thought is conveyed to the prospective mother 
that, — "really the thmg to do is to go to a hospital 
where you can have proper care and attention." 

As a result the young couple is loaded down with a 
long string of "Standardized" hospital charges, phy- 
sician's fees, salary and board of a special nurse, amount- 
ing everywhere from one hundred fifty to five hundred 
dollars ! 



32 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

Is it to be wondered at that so many parents do not 
respond with enthusiasm to the suggestion that they 
should have more children! 

The appropriate and normal place for this important 
domestic event is in the home, attended by the family 
physician, the mother and child cared for by a com- 
petent nurse. The total expense in normal cases should 
not exceed seventy -five dollars. This should be the 
maximum expense where the family income is under 
thirty six hundred dollars a year. This is but one 
illustration of the social and economic injustice of the 
"Standardization" of fees and practice by physicians, 
and the "EflSciency expert management" of modern 
first class hospitals. 

Those who contribute toward the foundation, 
maintenance, and support of hospitals could if they 
would do more than any other class of individuals to 
start these institutions out on the right track, and to 
bring them back when they are found yielding to temp- 
tation to stray from it. 

If every one before he consents to donate money 
to a hospital, or any other public or semi-public charity, 
for that matter, would take the pains to satisfy himself 
that such particular hospital or other charity is worthy 
of his support and encouragement, it would go a long 
ways towards the elimination of many of these offending 
institutions, and a radical reformation in the conduct 
and management of others. 

There would seem to be every good reason why 
hospitals of all kinds should be rigidly inspected in a 
thorough going manner at frequent and irregular 
intervals by committees representing the patrons, 
the donors, and the community in which the hospital 
is located. 



CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 33 

In the interest of the public, even our banks which 
assume responsibility only for the safe keeping of our 
money, are compelled to submit to frequent and 
thorough examinations by government experts, and 
in the event that an inspector finds any irregularity, 
that irregularity must be corrected immediately, or 
the inspector takes physical possession of the bank and 
closes its doors. 

There certainly could be no objection on the part 
of the management of those hospitals which are being 
conducted upon strictly humanitarian lines; and those 
that are not, most assuredly ought to be inspected and 
the findings given the widest publicity ! 

The basic fact should ever be kept in mind that the 
individual patient, whether rich or poor, is the unit 
for whose shelter, treatment and welfare hospitals are 
supposed to be founded and supported. 

The efficiency superintendent, the Board of Control, 
the Staff of physicians and surgeons, the head nurse, 
the Training school for nurses, the student nurses, the 
employees, the buildings with their equipment and 
furnishings, the spacious grounds with their walks, 
lawns, flowers, shrubbery and shade trees, are all 
provided for the sole purpose of contributing all that 
human intelligence, skill, sympathetic nursing, and 
pleasant surroundings can contribute toward restoring 
the most lowly patient to health. 

CENTRALIZED AUTHORITY IN CHURCHES 

The effect of this very human tendency toward 
centralization of domination and control may be seen 
in the history and growth of most any large local 
church. 

In the beginning of the movement for the organiza- 



34 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

tion of a local church, when a few families feel the 
urgent need for a church in their community, and band 
together to establish one, there are manifested earnest- 
ness of purpose and individual enthusiasm in win- 
ning converts, and in securing new members and friends 
of the movement. There is good fellowship among 
earnest workers and sincere believers in any righteous 
cause so long as the individual members are accorded 
an active part and a personal responsibility in it. 

In the early history of the little church, there are 
many obstacles to be met and overcome, and many 
personal sacrifices to be made to keep the little church 
going. It takes much planning and much individual 
effort on the part of all the members to get enough 
money together to purchase the lot that they have 
agreed upon for the site for their proposed church 
building. Then there follows the problem of ways and 
means of building a suitable building for its present 
and prospective needs, the mortgage, the interest, and 
the instalhnents on the principal. 

But through it all the spiritual purposes of a church 
are uppermost in the minds and hearts of the pastor 
and his little band of active church members. There 
are many converts, new members admitted, and the 
activities of the church enthusiastically active. It is 
recognized as a live, active, and purposeful church. 
The church grows in membership and it is a vitalizing 
spirit-force in the community. 

Too soon the fateful day arrives when the last 
installment on the last note is paid off, and the mortgage 
cancelled and burned, amid great rejoicing and thanks- 
giving. 

The membership has grown and the congregation 
has increased in numbers, and in aggregate wealth. 



CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 35 

The collections amount to more than this spiritually 
functioning church requires to meet its needs. 

Then it is that the more prominent and wealthy 
members begin to take a more active interest in the 
management of church affairs. The faithful, earnest, 
and more modest christian workers who organized the 
little band of believers, carried forward the religious 
work, built the building, and raised the money to pay 
for it, must stand aside and turn over the management 
and control of church affairs to men and women of 
"larger vision" and more up-to-date ideas! 

First of all a new pastor must be called. A special 
"hand picked" committee is proposed and duly ap- 
pointed and commissioned to look the whole field over 
and to choose the biggest preacher it can find to recom- 
mend for the position of preacher and pastor. 

This committee, after months of search, recom- 
mends a great man, a scholar, a Reverend D.D., LL.D, 
to the congregation to be called at a salary more than 
twice as large as this church has ever before paid to its 
pastor. 

The new preacher-pastor is formally called; and 
following much publicity in the public press in the two 
cities interested, the one from which and the one to 
which he is called, he accepts the call. 

He is formally installed with high ceremonial; intro- 
duced at a formal reception; and enters at once upon 
his formal duties. 

The position of the dearly beloved, but displaced 
pastor at these, various formal functions is pathetic to 
say the least. There are many beautifully worded 
complimentary allusions to his splendid achievement, 
and prayers and best wishes for his continued labor in 



36 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

the "Master's vineyard," with not a hint or a suggestion 
of where in that vineyard he is to find work ! 

There is nothing for the displaced pastor to do, 
whose only fault is that he has been instrumental in 
building up too prosperous a church, but to go forth 
and seek another pastorate where there is need for a 
community church, souls to be saved, and religious 
service to be rendered. 

Along with the new pastor, other club features were 
added. A paid quartette choir displaces the chorus 
choir of zealous church workers. The members of this 
professional choir were "hired and fired" by the music 
committee, ostensibly, but actually by the chairman of 
that committee, who assumes this privilege of choice 
on account of his being the largest supporter of the 
church. Under the new regime mo^t of the business of 
the church is transacted by committees. 

The affairs of the church are put upon a business 
basis in imitation of big business with scientific budgets, 
assessments, and collections. 

The church services grow more formalized and 
monotonous. The club attractions are suflSciently 
attractive to hold the men and to allure the young 
people. The church gradually loses its religious atmos- 
phere as it grows more and more into a community 
recreational center. It is not essentially irreligious; it 
has simply become a religious social club. It grows and 
prospers partly because of a prevailing impression that 
the quickest and surest way of, "Meeting the very best 
people" is by either joining or attending that church! 

From a virile, active, soul-saving religious body, 
the church assumes the status of a popular social club 
with a religious title and moral atmosphere. 



CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 37 

One needs to attend but three of the meetings of 
one of these institutionalized churches in any commun- 
ity to find the counterpart of the church outHned above; 
the Sunday morning service with sermon, the men's 
club, or a church social, and the midweek devotional 
service. 

Whenever a few rich and influential individuals as- 
sume the domination and control of church activities, 
and the majority of the membership acquiesces in that 
dictation and domination, it is an unmistakable symp- 
tom of dry rot ! 

This tendency toward centralization, institutional- 
ization, and crystalization of power and authority is 
even more marked in the general governing bodies of 
churches. A select few church dignitaries assume or 
acquire authority to act and to speak for the member- 
ship of their church upon all ecclesiastical questions. 

These exalted dignitaries sit within the inner circle 
of the Council chamber, next to the throne as it were, 
in the very presence of the Most High, receiving the 
divine will and purposes, deliver them to the ordinary 
membership of their church bodies with all the author- 
ity of, "Thus saith the Lord!" 

There have been all down the ages the few who 
assume to be the guardians of the "Holy of Holies" and 
whose office it is to keep the sacred lamp burning. 

This is true not only of the Christian and of the 
Jewish religions, but of all other religions. 

The world old question, — Who should be greatest.'^" 
is the rock in the channel of all movements of organized 
human effort. It has split and disrupted not only 
churches and other religious and philanthropic move- 
ments, but families, corporations, political parties, and 
nations as well. 



38 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

Even in religious organizations, worldly ambition 
for power and greed for gain pay scant heed to the 
Master's admonition, — "If any man desire to be first, 
the same shall be last of all and a servant of all." 

DOMINATION OF BUSINESS CORPORATIONS 

One of the most vicious examples of centralization 
of authority of domination and control into fewer 
and fewer individuals, is that furnished by practically 
all corporations. Not only do these corporations 
deprive their members of their voice in the manage- 
ment but they contrive in most instances to relieve them 
of their property rights as well ! 

The corporation laws of the various states legalize 
the wholesale robbery of small investors in a high- 
handed manner. The "Articles of Incorporation" of 
most "corporations organized for gain," and the laws 
governing them disfranchise men and brains and 
enfranchise shades of stock! 

Fifty one (51) per cent of the total number of 
shares of stock of any corporation or cooperative enter- 
prise absolutely dominates and controls that corpo- 
ration, company, or cooperative association legally. 
If one individual owns, or acquires the right to vote, 
a majority of the shares of stock of any company, he 
thereby acquires the legal right to dominate and control 
the policies of that corporation, borrow money on the 
credit of the company, elect all officers and fix their 
salaries, including his own, and determine all other 
expenditures except taxes, and make such returns and 
reports to his associate stock holders as he may de- 
termine is for their good ! 

The favorite and common scheme for raising the 
money for all considerable undertakings organized for 



CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 39 

gain, is for a small group of men to organize a company, 
incorporate under the law, determine the amount for 
which the company will be capitalized, divide the 
amount into shares of one hundred dollars each, take 
at least fifty one per cent of these shares for themselves, 
and offer the remainder of the shares to the gullible 
public ! 

The story of the promotion, organization, financing, 
control and management of 

THE BRIGHTWOOD HOTEL PROJECT 

will serve to illustrate the financing schemes of these 
promoters fairly well. In all probability the reader 
will find right in his own community similarly financed 
enterprises, past, present and contemplated. 

A successful promoter came into the town, looked 
over the ground, and decided that the town needed 
a new up-to-date hotel. He had faith in his scheme 
and in his ability to work it, so much so that he chose 
a site, and took an option on the property. 

He interested two local capitalists, the president 
of one of the banks and a silent partner and close 
friend of the banker. 

The local papers published a glowing account of 
the new project for a new modern hotel. The location 
for the hotel was announced, and a highly colored 
sketch of the proposed building, "As it will appear" 
was drawn by a well known architect, and was con- 
spicuously displayed in a show window. 

A tentative plan of organization was drawn up, and 
an application was made to the Secretary of State 
for incorporation papers for the "Brightwood Hotel 
Company, Capital stock — $150,000.00, divided into 
shares of the par value of $100.00 each." 



40 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

A Prospectus was issued and mailed to a carefully 
selected list of everyone in town likely to have as much 
as one hundred dollars to invest. The bank may not 
have furnished the "Selected list," but there were 
very few mistakes made in the guesses! The pros- 
pectus set forth in nicely worded phrases the urgent 
need for a new modern first class hotel in the town, 
the many advantages that such a hotel would add to 
the place, and expressed the firm conviction that the 
enterprising business men and citizens could be depended 
upon to see the project for a new up-to-date hotel 
successfully financed and carried through to completion. 

"Enough of the stock has already been spoken for 
to assure the success of the enterprise!" 

"A limited number of shares of stock are offered at 
par. Applications for this stock will be filed in the 
order of the receipt and allotment will be made until 
the shares are all sold." The usual bargain sale 
warning: "Come early and avoid the rush!" 

Now this was the scheme as it unfolded: The 
agreement among the three schemers was that the 
promoter was to be given ten per cent of the shares of 
stock for his services in promoting the scheme, and these 
one hundred fifty shares were to be divided equally 
among the three men, — fifty shares each; and in 
addition the promoter was to be given fifty shares for 
his option on the property of the proposed hotel site. 

Thus it will be seen that the promoter would get 
one hundred shares of the stock in the New Brightwood 
Hotel Company as his part of the scheme for his 
initiative, time and trouble. To be sure there was an 
element of risk in it, for if the scheme had failed he 
might have lost the amount of his deposit on the 
option. And had he been one of those Chicago real 



CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 41 

estate experts, he might easily have missed a milHon 
or so dollars in expert fees! 

The banker agreed to purchase for himself and his 
"clients" five hundred sixty-five shares. This disposed 
of seven hundred sixty-five shares, a majority of the 
total number of shares, or the controlling interest. 

A private agreement was drawn and signed which 
provided that no one of the three parties would sell, 
assign, nor dispose of any or all of his shares of stock 
without first offering his shares to the other parties 
to the agreement. This precaution was taken to 
prevent the possibility of the controlling interest pass- 
ing from the banker and his "clients." 

The remaining seven hundred thirty-five shares of 
the capital stock were to be sold, and were sold to the 
"sucker" investors in the Brightwood Hotel Company 
at one hundred dollars a share! 

These shares were bought mainly by people of 
limited means out of their scanty savings as an "Invest- 
m.ent." Some of the more public spirited business men 
of the town bought a few shares each with the idea of 
boosting the town along. 

The stock all sold and the money collected from the 
small investors, a meeting of all the stockholders was 
called for the election of a board of directors of five 
members, and "for the transaction of such other 
business as may properly come before the meeting." 

The promoter and the banker, with the aid of his 
"client's" shares elected themselves, the silent partner 
capitalist, and two other stockholders satisfactory to 
the three. 

There were a number of talks all praising the public 
spirit of the citizens of the town; and all the stock- 
holders were urged to pull together for the new hotel. 



42 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

The business of the stockholders' meeting being 
finished, the meeting adjourned for one year, unless 
called sooner by the secretary ! 

Minority stocldiolders in any corporation, company, 
or cooperative association, have three important 
duties to perform, named in the order of their relative 
importance: viz. 

First, paying for their stock. 

Second, voting their shares directly, or by "proxy," 
at an election of directors; and. 

Third, patiently waiting for the arrival of a dividend 
check. 

The appearance of dividend checks is very like 
angels' visits, — "Few and far between!" 

The average number of shares purchased by each 
of the one hundred five (105) minority stockholders was 
seven shares, and the total amount paid into the 
Brightwood Hotel scheme by those 105 "suckers" was 
the tidy sum of seventy-three thousand five hundred 
(73,500) dollars. 

The three majority stockliolders, the financiers of 
the scheme, paid in but fifty-six thousand five hundred 
(56,500) dollars for 765 shares, thirty shares more than 
the one hundred five minority stockholders purchased ! 

It is both interesting and instructive to note the 
fact that none of the one hundred five minority stock- 
holders, unless possibly the two dummy directors, had 
any voice in the choice of the site for the hotel, in 
deciding the price to be paid for it, in the agreement to 
pay the promoter's fifteen thousand dollars of the 
stock for his share for promoting the scheme, nor his 
allotment of five thousand dollars of stock for his 
option on the property for the hotel site! These 
minor details were all looked after for them by the 



CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 43 

three majority stock holders. That is what majority 
stockholders are there for!! 

From this stage of the unfolding of the scheme, the 
majority stockholders take over the control and man- 
agement of all the affairs of the Brightwood Hotel 
Company officially, and to our shame be it said, legally. 

The Board of Directors held their first oflBcial 
meeting immediately following the adjournment of the 
stockholders' meeting. The local capitalist, the friend 
of the banker, was elected president; the promoter of 
the scheme, vice president and general manager; the 
banker, treasurer; and an employee of the bank, one of 
the dummy directors, secretary. 

The promoter-vice president-general manager was 
voted a good stiff salary to enable him to devote his 
whole time and attention to the active affairs of the 
Brightwood Hotel Company. The property for the 
site of the hotel was promptly purchased and paid for 
outright at the option price. The buildings on the 
property were disposed of and the ground cleared 
ready for the new building; the plans of the architect 
were approved, and the board of directors advertised 
for bids for the construction of the building. 

It was not until after the bids were opened, ex- 
amined, and tabulated for comparison that it was 
discovered (?) that the construction of the building 
alone, at the lowest estimate, would cost not less than 
One hundred seventy -five thousand (175000) dollars! 
The members of the board of directors pretended to be 
astonished and disappointed at the amount of the 
bids from the numerous bidders. 

The banker and his associate capitalist knew right 
along about how much the building was likely to cost. 
The treasurer's report showed that there was but 



44 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

about ninety -five thousand (95,000) dollars left avail- 
able for the building fund ! 

There was much discussion in the news papers, 
among the stockholders, and in the meetings of the 
board of directors regarding the predicament the 
stockholders and the board of directors found them- 
selves in; and there were numerous suggestions offered 
as a way out of the difficulty. 

After considering all of these suggestions more or 
less seriously, it was decided to issue bonds for one 
hundred thousand (100,000) dollars at an attractive 
rate of interest to run for twenty years, and secured by a 
first mortgage on the Brightwood property and its 
furnishings. 

The bank of which the treasurer was president 
proposed to underwrite the whole issue of the bonds 
for a syndicate of its customers at a slight discount. 
The truth of the matter is that the president, and the 
treasurer of the Brightwood Hotel Company were the 
only members of the "syndicate!" 

Now that the project was successfully financed, 
the contracts were let for the construction of the 
building; but the payments of money on these contracts 
were not made except upon the approval of the bank 
acting for and in behalf of the syndicate of bond 
holders. It is evident that the Brightwood Hotel 
Company was now mortgaged for two thirds of the 
original capital which meant that each share that the 
holder had paid one hundred dollars in cash for was 
mortgaged for sixty-six dollars and sixty-six cents, and 
that the nominal or book value of each share was 
reduced to thirty -three dollars and thirty -three cents; 
and the significant fact is that the president, and the 



CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 45 

treasurer mortgaged the property, hold the mortgage, 
and own the bonds ! 

As the building progressed these deluded minority- 
stockholders naturally felt a sense of proprietorship and 
they would mention with pride the fact that they were 
stockholders in the new hotel! 

It was not long however before first one then 
another of these enterprising citizens felt the need for 
the money they had been induced to invest (?) in the 
shares of the Brightwood Hotel Company. As their 
needs became more pressing, they began to offer their 
stock for sale, but they soon came to realize the sad 
fact that their shares of stock were much more difficult 
to dispose of than they had been to get. They found 
out also that their shares were not rated very high at 
the bank when offered as security for a loan. As a 
result of so many shares being offered for sale, and 
there being little demand for them, they soon began 
to be offered at very low prices. As the scheme worked 
out, those who were able to sell at any price were, 
comparatively speaking, less unfortunate than those 
who did not sell. 

It was rather significant that the promoter-vice 
president and general manager was the first stock- 
holder to decide that it was high time to "unload his 
holdings" of stock in the project that he had so success- 
fully promoted. It is known that he disposed of his 
one hundred shares to his two associates in the deal 
even before the bonds were issued. How much he 
received for his shares was never given out; it would 
appear that as a part of the consideration, it was 
agreed that he should retain his position of vice pres- 
ident and general manager, and as such, continue to 
work for and with the controlling interests. It came 



46 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

out later that but one share of stock was listed in his 
name, the least amount that would make him eligible 
to hold office in a corporation. 

In due time the building was completed; it was 
admirably planned for a hotel and well built. As part 
of the scheme for keepmg control, the board of directors 
decided not to lease the building but furnish and 
operate it. The vice president and general manager 
was made manager of the hotel. 

The splendor of the grand opening was dazzling. 

At the banquet there were toasts by the guests of 
honor praising the public spirit and civic enterprise 
of the citizens of the town who through their generous 
support had made the project a success. When the 
promoter-manager was introduced, he was given an 
ovation. The preceeding speakers had complimented 
him for originating and pushing the project through to 
completion. He modestly disclaimed the credit, 
giving it to his public spirited associates who had so 
generously supported the enterprise. Now that the 
hotel was complete in all its appointments, he assured 
the citizens that the management would spare no 
pains nor expense to make the New Brightwood Hotel 
the best hotel in the country, and the pride of the 
town. 

The promoter manager was voted an excessive 
salary by the board of directors, just about double the 
salary usually paid to experienced managers of other 
hotels of that size. The inside facts of the agreement 
between the manager and his employers, serves to 
throw some light upon the high salary paid to the 
manager, and most likely, upon the excessive salaries 
paid to the executives of so many other struggling 
corporations. 



CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 47 

The private understanding was that the manager 
was to receive ten thousand dollars a year salary, but 
he was to pay back to the banker, privately, the sum 
of three hundred eighty-two dollars and fifty cents 
each month for the use of the majority stockholders, 
the treasurer and the president of the company ! 

Thus it will be seen that these two local, public 
spirited capitalists were able to so manipulate, legally, 
the financial affairs of a supposedly local cooperative 
public enterprise through the centralization of power 
and authority as to secure for themselves the sum of 
four thousand five hundred ninety (4590) dollars; and 
it is significant that this snug sum of all the stock- 
holders' money amounts to six per cent on the total 
par value of the shares of stock owned by these two 
worthy financiers! 

In addition to this, these gentlemen had secured to 
themselves seven thousand dollars a year in interest on 
the one hundred thousand dollars of bonds they owned. 

These majority stockholders — two men — with the 
connivance of the promoter schemed from the beginning 
to control, and, eventually, to own the New Bright- 
wood Hotel property. The manager was instructed 
that he was to so manage the affairs of the hotel as to 
barely make running expenses including "up keep" and 
fixed charges; and by the end of the second year, there 
should be a default in the payment of interest on the 
bonds ! 

This scheme was carried out faithfully. Within 
three years, the affairs of the Brightwood Hotel 
Company were thrown into the hands of a receiver 
by the court upon the petition of an attorney for the 
bondholders. The promoter-manager was appointed 
receiver by the court upon the suggestion of the 



48 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

attorney that he would be satisfactory both to the 
Brightwood Hotel Company, and to the bondholders! 
As the net earnings of the hotel under the receivership 
did not give promise of improvement, the court ordered 
that the property be sold to satisfy the claims of the 
creditors. The property and good will of the Bright- 
wood Hotel was sold at auction; and "Bid in" by a 
gentleman representing the syndicate of the bond- 
holders! This meant, of course, that the minority 
stockholders were sold out and had no further property 
interest in the Brightwood Hotel Company. Their 
Stock Certificates henceforth would have no value 
except as pathetic reminders of an unfortunate invest- 
ment, — for them. 

The "Holding syndicate representing the bond- 
holders" proceeded to "Reorganize" the affairs of the 
now defunct Brightwood Hotel Company. The title 
of the new company was The New Brightwood Hotel 
Holding Company. The same members of the board 
of directors, and the same officers were elected. The 
promoter-manager who had made so satisfactory a 
financial success of the scheme, was continued in his 
lucrative position of vice president and manager of the 
hotel at the same salary, and the same private arrange- 
ment as to his refund of a substantial part of his 
salary. 

The board of directors of the New Brightwood Hotel 
Holding Company decided, as a part of its reorgani- 
zation scheme, to issue one hundred fifty thousand 
(150000) dollars of capital stock divided into fifteen 
hundred (1500) shares of the par value of one hundred 
(100) dollars each. It was further decided to offer, 
"A limited number of these shares of stock to the 
public at par!" "Preference will be given to stock- 



CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 49 

holders of the original Brightwood Hotel Company in 
the allotment of the new shares." 

The pathetic part of the story is that as many of the 
"suckers" as could raise the money to do so "bit" 
again at the same old "bait!" 

The gullible public contributed seventy -three 
thousand five hundred (73,500) dollars again to the 
treasury of the Brightwood Hotel scheme! This 
substantial amount was put into the "Working capital" 
fund. The majority stock, seven hundred sixty-five 
shares, were placed in the strong boxes of the two 
public spirited financiers, and, so far as it could be 
found out from the records, these two worthy gentle- 
men never paid into the treasury a dollar for those 
shares! They were brought forth on the occasion of 
each and every Annual Meeting of the Stockholders 
to be voted for the election of directors! 

It will be seen that these two gentlemen now owned 
the New Brightwood Hotel property. They owned 
outright the one hundred thousand (100,000) dollars 
of seven (7) per cent gold bonds, the majority of the 
shares of the capital stock and the seventy-three 
thousand five hundred (73,500) dollars of working 
capital invested (?) by the minority stockholders. 

It is interesting to relate the fact that after the 
completion of the reorganization of the affairs of the 
Brightwood Hotel Company, and the sale of the new 
series of capital stock, the management was enabled 
to make an increasingly better financial showing from 
month to month. From that time the hotel has been a 
paying business proposition, the stockholders, all of 
them, received their dividends regularly, and the hotel 
soon gained the reputation of being a "gold mine!" 



50 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

It was but a little over a year after the reorgani- 
zation was completed, that the newspapers announced 
that a hotel syndicate had bought the controlling 
interest in the New Brightwood Hotel, and would take 
immediate possession as soon as the formality of the 
transfer was completed. It came out later, that the 
banker and his associate capitalist were paid one 
hundred thousand (100,000) dollars for their seven 
hundred sixty -five shares of stock! They kept their 
one hundred thousand dollars of bonds that were a 
lien on the hotel property with fifteen j^ears to run 
before they would mature. 

Thus it will be seen that these two financiers of this 
little city had invested about one hundred sixty-five 
thousand (165,000) dollars in this local cooperative 
enterprise for the benefit of the town. After they had 
closed out their controlling interest, they figured that 
they had received from first to last, including rebates 
from the salary of the manager, dividends for one year, 
the selling price of their interests, and the par value of 
their bonds two hu idred twenty-seven thousand five 
hundred (227,500) dollars. 

In this same town one hundred fifty citizens, men, 
women, and children, any number of widows and 
elderly maiden ladies were induced to invest their 
savings in this local enterprise largely on the strength 
of the faith that the banker had manifested in the 
project. These one hundred fifty well meaning but 
deluded people contributed the sum of one hundred 
forty-seven thousand (147,000) dollars altogether, of 
which seventy-three thousand five hundred (73,500) 
dollars so invested (?) was a total loss to the 105 
individual minority stockholders! 



CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 51 

The purchasers of the 735 minority shares of 
stock in the reorganized New Brightwood Hotel Hold- 
ing Company made an investment of about an average 
security as investments in minority stock investments 
go. The banker who knows all there is to know about 
this Brightwood Hotel Holding Company, will not 
accept this stock as collateral security for a loan to 
exceed 40% of its par value! 

This picture of the financing of the Brightwood 
Hotel is not overdrawn in the least. It is the history 
of a comparatively conservatively promoted and 
financed local cooperative company. 

When one realizes that there are thousands of 
corporations, large and small, promoted and financed 
along similar lines all over the country, one may 
vaguely comprehend the vast sums of money which are 
taken in by promoters and majority stockholders from 
small investors (?) of their savings! 

Think of the number of corporations all over the 
country local, general, national, and international, 
from country creameries and cooperative stores to 
ocean steamship lines, all financed on lines similar to the 
Brightwood Hotel Company. The "Chicago and Alton 
Railroad," the "Rock Island," the Chicago, and the 
New York Transportation lines, surface, elevated and 
subway lines, are familiar illustrations of financial 
manipulations, "reorganizations" and of the kindly 
consideration of the controlling interests of public 
corporations for the interests of their (minority) 
stockholders ! 

The fact is that our whole financial structure is 
founded and built upon the minority stockholders' 
investments in stock certificates, preferred stocks and 
"junior" securities of all sorts and descriptions. 



52 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

FINANCING PUBLIC SERVICE CORPORATIONS 

There is every present indication that the financiers 
have still further designs upon the savings of the 
small investors. 

At the last annual banquet of the Chicago chapter 
of the American Institute of Banking, held in the La 
Salle Hotel, Mr. Samuel Insull, President of the 
Peoples Gas, Light and Coke Company; the Public 
Service Company'' of Northern Illinois; the Common- 
wealth Edison Company; Receiver for Chicago and 
Oak Park Elevated R. R.; Trustee, on Governing 
Committee, and Executive Committee Chicago Ele- 
vated Railways Collateral Trust; Chairman of the 
Board, Metropolitan West Side Elevated Railway, the 
South Side Elevated Railway, and the Northwestern 
Elevated Railroad Company; and operator of public 
utility properties in fourteen other states, was one of 
the speakers. Mr. Insull was explaining to the bankers 
and their guests how he had solved, and proposed to 
solve the problem of financing the properties he is 
operating. 

Among his other interesting and significant remarks, 
he was reported to have spoken as follows : 

"It is perfectlj^ natural that during a period such as 
we have gone through taking really from 1914 up to the 
last six months, that institutions like those I am 
connected with should suffer during the general uprise 
in prices of all commodities and labor. But it has 
taught us one very important thing." 

"Heretofore it has been a very hard thing to raise 
money. A man who has to raise a million dollars a 
week, has found it very hard, especially during the 
war period. But during the war we learned that we 



CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 53 

had to go to our customers and ask them to take our 
junior securities, and it turns out that it was the very 
best thing that ever happened to us." 

"We have increased the stockholders of the Common- 
wealth-Edison Company from 5000 to 6000 on Armis- 
tice day to between 25,000 and 26,000 today. We are 
doing that all the way through, and of the $40,000,000 
or $50,000,000 new money that is needed by the 
growth of the properties I am operating around here 
and in fourteen other states we expect to get somewhere 
between 40 and 50 per cent of that money from our 
customers each year." 

"What I am deliberately after is public ownership. 
Not Municipal ownership, but public ownership, that 
will result in a vast army of stockholders, and we have 
500,000 of them in the state of Illinois today, to stand 
guard over their own property." 

"There is nobody more alive to the fact that we are 
after it than the politicians. That is what we are 
going to get, and when the junior securities of all these 
local public utilities are owned by the people themselves 
as individuals you will hear less about municipal 
ownership, you will hear less about attacks upon public 
utility interests, and you will find that the senior 
securities we have put out will be very desirable 
collateral whenever they come over your counters." 

These very frank statements are indeed most 
interesting and instructive, especially to prospective 
investors in minority shares of stock, and in "junior" 
securities ! 

In the first place, note his statement that, — " ** of 
the $40,000,000 or $50,000,000 new money that is 
needed *** we expect to get somewhere between 40 and 
50 per cent of that money from our customers each 



54 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

year"! These are large sums of money Mr. InsuU 
expects to get from small investors, thousands of them. 

What does he propose to give "our customers" in 
return for their little hoards of "new money"? A 
finelly lithographed "junior" security certificate! 
Speaking to these hard headed bankers, it is equally 
significent that he did not intimate that those "junior" 
securities " — we have put out will be very desirable 
collateral whenever they come over your counters"! 

Again Mr. Insull acknowledges what these bankers 
very well knew, "Heretofore it has been a very hard 
thing to raise money." Why? The answer is simple 
enough. The professional money lenders, those indi- 
viduals, partnerships, and syndicates whose business 
it is to lend money, banks, trust companies, insurance 
companies, and commercial paper brokers, demand 
ample and tangible security for loans. It seems 
reasonable to assume that it was not so much, " ** a very 
hard thing to raise money" as it was to raise acceptable 
collateral security. Evidently the "anny of (minority) 
stockholders, and we have 500,000 of them in the state 
of Illmois today to stand guard over their own property" 
was less critical in its scrutiny of the security offered 
for the advancement of its "new money" ! 

There is another pertment viewpoint worthy of 
consideration, viz, — the statement that these 500,000 
stockholders in Illmois today, " ** stand guard over their 
own property"! It would be interesting to have 
Mr. Insull tell his customers, from whom, "of the 
$40,000,000 to $50,000,000 new money ********* we ex- 
pect to get somewhere between 40 and 50 percent from 
our customers each year" just to what extent these 
stockholders, and his holders of "junior" securities own 
"their own property"! Who are the owners of the 



CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 55 

controlling interest, the majority of the common stock 
in the"** properties I am operating around here and in 
fourteen other states"? How many individuals own 
the controlling interest in the properties, "I am oper- 
ating"? 

How many individuals own the balance, or the 
minority shares of stock? What voice, if any, has 
this "vast army of stockholders" in the management, 
and in the determining of the policies of " ** the prop- 
erties I am operating around here and in fourteen 
other states"? Does this "army of stockholders" 
have any means of checking up to determine for its 
members how their 40 to 50 per cent of, " ** $40,000,000 
to $50,000,000 new money that is needed by the 
growth of the properties I am operating around 
here and in fourteen other states," is appro- 
priated and used? Is it not a fact that " ** the prop- 
erties I am operating" are owned, controlled, and 
dominated by a little clique of capitalists whom Mr. 
Insull represents? Do not the votes of the majority 
shares owned by this little clique, elect the directors, 
governing board members, and executive committee 
members, who m turn elect the executive officers? 
Does not the board of directors fix the amount of the 
salary and perquisites of each of the officials, and 
principal attorney or attorneys? 

Ownership, "over their own property" would 
imply that the owners would be allowed a voice in the 
management and direction of the essential affairs of the 
property owned ! 

Whoever has the authority to collect, to hold, and 
to spend the money of a property or business owns and 
controls that property or business. 

Reduced to its lowest terms, Mr. Insull's declaration 



56 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

that, "What I am deliberately after is public owner- 
ship," really means that he would like to sell 40 to 49 
per cent of the common stock to his scattered customers, 
and the more scattered the better, and as many of the 
"junior" securities in, " ** the properties I am operating" 
as these customers can be induced to carry; but he, 
and those whose interests he is supposed to represent, 
will hold on to the controlling interest. In other words 
if the public will furnish the "new money that is 
needed" he and his controlling interests will control and 
manage "their own property" for them! As a wag 
we knew was accustomed to remark dryly when an 
absurd proposition was presented to him, "That seems 
fair and reasonable!" 

Mr. Insull expresses the hope, and makes the 
prediction that, " *** when the junior securities of all 
these local public utilities are owned by the people 
themselves as individuals you will hear less about 
municipal ownership, you will hear less about attacks 
upon the public utility interests," etc. 

Is it not barely possible that if the people who have 
invested their money in minority stocks, "junior" 
securities, and bonds of public utilities had been more 
fairly and honestly treated by the controlling interests 
of those corporations, and the public had been given 
more satisfactory service in return for what it was 
forced to pay for that service, that "you would hear 
less about municipal ownership, you will hear less 
about attacks upon public utility interests".'' 

The financing of the properties Mr. Insull is 
"operating around here and in fourteen other states" 
may be taken as fairly typical of the financing of the 
general run of corporations of all sorts. 

The usual and favorite scheme is for the promoters 



CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 57 

and the organizers of the project to get the control 
of the corporation by issuing and selling stock, and 
retaining fifty-one (51) per cent of it for themselves. 
It is a common practice to turn in franchises, patents, 
copy rights, promotive services or almost any thing 
except cash for the controlling majority of the shares of 
stock. As was shown in the history of the financing 
of the Brightwood Hotel scheme, the promoter and the 
two financial backers actually paid into the treasury 
$56,500 for 765 of the 1500 shares in that conservatively 
financed enterprise, while the 105 other stockholders 
paid $73,500 in cash for 735 shares; and before the 
financing was completed most of the same people with 
a few others who did not bite the first time, actually 
paid in another $73,500 for the 735 minority shares in 
the reorganized New Brightwood Hotel Holding 
Company ! 

In the organization of many of the public service 
properties, such as our street railways, elevated and 
subway railways, telephone, electric light and power 
companies, and gas companies, the promoters and 
controlling interests usually turned in their franchises 
for their part of the capitahzation of their project. 
These franchises are simply legal permission to use the 
streets and alleys for laying tracks, stringing wires, 
laying water and gas pipes, and conduits for cables 
and wires, which permission usually carries with it the 
monopoly of the streets and alleys for the operation 
of that particular utihty for a definite term. Most of 
these valuable franchises, as the word indicates, are 
in so far as the public is concerned, free gifts, costing 
the promoters nothing but the "Contingent expenses" 
necessary to get the franchises "voted" through the 



58 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

council or other representative body chosen by the 
voters to look after their civic interests. 

The pubKc furnishes the franchises, most of the 
capital required to build, equip, and to start the 
business of the utility, and in many, maay instances 
fully as much again actual cash as ever is expended 
upon the properties. What ever becomes of this over 
plus of "new money" raised from the sale of minority 
shares of stocks, numerous issues of bonds, and "junior" 
securities of all names and descriptions, no one knows 
except those who control and "operate" the inside 
financial affairs, under sanction of law, mind you, and 
they never are called upon to explain ! 

This one fact should be kept clearly in mind : That 
great army of stockholders and investors who furnish 
the money with which most public utilities are built, 
equipped, and operated have no voice in the manage- 
ment and control of "their own property," and of 
course, in the expenditure of their money! 

The holders of the majority shares of stock, elect 
the directors. The directors elect the officials, fix their 
salaries, determine the policies, and what disposition 
shall be made of the net earnings, or whether or not 
there shall be any "net earnings available for divi- 
dends!" 

The laws that grant authority to the possessors of 
fifty -one (51) per cent of the shares of common stock 
of any cooperative undertaking or corporation to 
manage, dominate, and control the affairs of that 
enterprise as completely as though it were their 
private property, and deliberately against the interests 
of the holders of the minority stock, and of the owners 
of the so called "preferred" stock, bonds, "minor" 
securities, and notes, work a flagrant economic injustice 



CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 59 

and are clearly against public policy ! Such laws place 
in the hands of greedy and unscrupulous financiers the 
legal weapon with which to plunder their less prosperous 
fellow men, women, orphans and dependent wards! 

There are instances of where the controlling interests 
of a corporation have issued a whole series of bonds, 
secured by a first mortgage on the property, divided 
the bonds up among themselves, and held them in 
their own safety deposit boxes, clipping the coupons 
regularly and collecting them from their own treasury 
and pocketing the money. 

Not a dollar was paid into the treasury of the 
corporation for those bonds, and yet, they stand as 
legal liens against the corporations! There are any 
number of instances in comparatively recent years of 
marauding interests managing to secure a majority 
of the shares of stock of honestly financed, and ably 
managed railroads which had been and were paying 
dividends to their stockholders regularly; no sooner 
had these interests taken possession, than they began 
their schemes for "Reorganization and financing." 
The properties of these railroads were bonded to their 
limits upon the pretext of "For betterments and 
improvements!" 

The total amount actually expended for better- 
ments and improvements was an infintismal portion 
of the proceeds of the huge bond issue. These fine 
first class railroad properties weighted dowQ with 
legalized debts and heavy interest charges, have 
sunken from their enviable positions of first class rail- 
roads to the depths of debt burdened properties. The 
unfortunate holders of the minority shares in these fine 
properties, and the "gilt edge securities" of the original 



60 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

properties were ruthlessly plundered of their rightful 
incomes. 

One favorite device of these marauding financiers 
that is used to dispoil the minority stockholders of 
their rightful share of their earnings is the very common 
practice of the controlling interests of paying inordinate 
salaries to their officials, presidents, vice presidents and 
general managers, managers, treasurers, attorneys, 
etc. These salaries are often anywhere from five to 
ten times the salary that the recipient of it ever did 
earn, or could get in any other similar position. The 
secret of these abnormal salaries in many cases, it 
would probably be safe to say in most cases, is that the 
greater portion of these salaries is paid over to the 
controlling interest, or interests, of the property. A 
board of directors, for instance will vote a salary of 
$25,000 to its president and general manager; the 
business does not justify the payment of to exceed 
$10,000, and the incumbent would be fortunate to 
find another position where he could earn $6,000, and by 
all prudent business considerations, $10,000 a year 
would be a most liberal salary. But he draws $25,000 
from the treasury, and this amount is charged to 
"overhead control;" this amount added to one or 
more other inordinate salaries, eats quite a hole in the 
earnings of the little business. But, if he pays to the 
holders of the majority of the shares of stock $15,000, 
this amount alone is the equivalent of six per cent on 
$250,000 of common stock ! 

But this is typical of comparatively small business 
concerns. Any number of the big interests vote their 
executives fabulous sums and charge these sums against 
the business as "Overhead management and control." 
These salaries range all the way from $25,000 to 



CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 61 

$125,000 a year! In a few instances where a specially 
astute and versatile executive is chosen to look after 
the interests of a little financial clique dominating and 
controlling a number of extensive enterprises, he will 
be paid salaries by each of these separate corporations 
amounting in the aggregate to not less than $150,000 a 
year. Granting in a spirit of fairness, that one of these 
executives is permitted to retain as much as $30,000, 
and that he returns but $120,000, this one official's 
rebate amounts to six per cent on $2,000,000 par value 
of capital stock! But he is but one of the favored and 
dependable executives, there are the vice presidents 
and general managers, the managers, attorneys, 
comptrollers, auditors, treasurers, chairmen of the 
boards, etc. If an attorney is paid $30,000, who 
would feel that he was fortunate indeed to get $12,000, 
it is safe to assume that he "rebates" at least $18,000 
to the controlling interests he represents. 

Eighteen thousand dollars, is the equivalent of six 
per cent on $300,000 more of the common stock. Thus 
it will be seen that the controlling interests, the 
majority stockholders, "get theirs," regardless of 
whether the properties earn "Net profits available 
for dividends" or not. It is obvious that if the control- 
ling interests can manage to get six per cent on their 
holdings of common stock, that they could, were the 
property managed fairly and honestly, pay at least 
three per cent on all the common stock! The difficulty 
is that while the laws protect the money interests as 
against the rights of men, women, and children, most 
corporate affairs are likely to be so manipulated that 
bona fide investors in shares of stock, the preferred 
shares, and the minor securities in cooperative under- 



62 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

takings, will bear the heft of the financial burdens, 
and receive small if any returns. 

Even those comparatively few corporations, in- 
cluding the banks and trust companies, that make 
some pretense of paying dividends to their stock- 
holders, rarely ever pay their minority share holders 
more than a fair rate of interest for their money. In 
the event that the earnings begin to increase to the 
point that would warrant an increase in the dividend 
rate, the salaries of the executives are likely to be 
substantially increased, or one or more high salaried 
officials added. That part of the increased earnings 
that may not be distributed by the usual devices is 
added to "Undivided profits" or to "Surplus," — any 
pretext to keep minority stockholders from being paid 
more than their normally limited dividends. 

For the week ending May 6, 1922, the newspapers' 
report of the price range of stocks traded in, listed on 
the New York Stock Exchange, lists 360 Common, or 
voting, stocks. Of these 138 were reported as having 
paid dividends. This would indicate that out of every 
100 selected and listed stocks on the New York Stock 
Exchange, 62 make no pretensions of paying dividends 
to their minority stockliolders ! 

Only 41 of the 360 listed stocks quoted, were traded 
in at or near par; and but 16 out of a hundred paid a 
dividend of six per cent or more! 

These figures convey a startling lesson for the 
person of moderate means who feels that he should 
invest a portion of his savings for his wife and children 
to meet their unmediate necessities when he cannot 
otherwise provide for them. They forcast the prospect 
that if he should invest, or had invested his savings in 
common stocks, the chances are 16 out of 100 that his 



CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 63 

investment will yield an annual income for his de- 
pendent ones of six per cent or over, and the chances 
that his investment will yield nothing are 62 out of 
100!! 

Yet it is fair to presume that in 325 of the 360 of the 
properties quoted as having been bought and sold 
during the week, the majority stockholders "got 
theirs" either as salaries and perquisites, or by "re- 
organization" financing! 

As long as the laws protect these professional 
financiers in their right to plunder small investors, by 
clothing them with the privilege and authority to 
dominate, control, and manage a stock company, to 
collect and handle all receipts, determine all ex- 
penditures, to fix all salaries, including their own, most 
naturally, they will see to it that the, — "Net earnings 
available for dividends" are kept at a low ebb! 

The minority stockholders have no one to blame 
but themselves! They are greatly in the majority as 
men and women, individuals, voters! The 500,000 
minority stockholders in Illinois for instance clauned 
by one operator of properties, provided they could 
be awakened to the urgent necessity of looking out 
for their own economic interests, might wield an 
influence that would bring about the necessary legis- 
lation to protect them and all future investors in their 
personal and corporate rights. 

The remedy for this wasting canker that is absorbing 
the financial lifeblood of the people, is the substitution 
of a democracy of men, women, and brains for the 
established democracy of one hundred dollar ($100) 
shares of stock! Why not? Surely each individual 
who invests his money in any sort of a money making 
corporation, is just as vitally interested in the financial 



64 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

success of that corporation as the capitah'st who 
invests a portion of his capital in the same corporation 
although the capitalist may have invested a hundred 
times more than any other individual, or possibly 
more than all the other individuals together! 

In the financing of the Brightwood Hotel, for 
example, is it not reasonable to assume that the 105 
men and women of that little city who purchased an 
average of seven shares each of the original issue of 
stock in that local community undertaking were as 
sincerely and unselfishly interested in the financial 
success of the enterprise as the other three men who 
were legally empowered to dominate, and mismanage 
the affairs, and plunder the 105 well meaning neighbors 
and fellow townsmen of their $73,500 simply because 
the three had acquired a majority of 30 shares of the 
voting stock! 

The first step towards a semblance of economic justice 
in the organization, financing, conducting, and manage- 
ment of all corporations, and cooperative undertakings is 
to secure the enactment of laws which will give to each 
shareholder one vote, and no share holder more than one 
vote in the conduct of the affairs of that corporation. 

All members of boards of directors, and the principal 
executive oflScers should be chosen on account of their 
honesty, ability, and demonstrated fitness for the 
respective positions of responsibility and trust, by 
the direct vote of the individual stockliolders, or in the 
case of "an army of stockholders" by delegates chosen 
by, and representing a predetermined number of 
share holders, each and every stockholder whether 
holding one share or ten thousand shares having the 
l^al right to one vote, and but one vote! 

When the individual citizen asserts his rights, and 



CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 65 

comes into possession of himself and of his own, there 
is likely to be a precipitate descension to the private 
financial ranks of many a fat exploiting financier who 
has garnered great store of riches from his depredations 
on the accumulated savings of minority stock pur- 
chasers ! 

Again returning to the analogous example of the 
financing of the Brightwood Hotel Company, the 
probabiHty is that the board of directors would have 
been made up of other members than of the ones 
chosen by the majority shares of stock, if each share 
holder had had but one vote; and that a more capable 
lot of officials would have been elected; that the hotel 
would have been built and furnished at a much less 
cost; that the hotel would have been a financial and 
business success from the opening; that the second 
series of shares would never have been issued; that 
the bonds would have been purchased by the stock- 
holders; that all the stockholders would have received 
dividends on their holdings of the original stock, the 
majority stockholders along with the rest; and that 
when the hotel was sold the purchasers would have 
had to purchase all the shares of stock that were for 
sale at the price offered for the controlling interest, for 
there would have been no controlling interest except a 
majority of the individual stockholders! 

Let us have democratic government in the control 
and management of all corporate enterprises, wherein 
each individual shareholder shall be accorded the same 
rights and privileges as any other individual stock- 
holder! 

This plea is for civic, economic, and political rights 
and privileges as well as the weighty responsibilities of 
the individual. 



66 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

Every citizen should be educated to demand, and 
he should be urged to assume a voice in the manage- 
ment of every institution of which he is a member, or 
of which he is called upon to support, whether it be a 
church, a lodge, a bank, a business or a charity. In 
the mean time while waiting and working for the 
enactment of laws legalizing democracy of men and 
brains in the place of the unjust democracy of $100 
shares of stock, prudence would seem to dictate that one 
who has money to invest should be particular to place 
it only where the investment is amply secured, and 
where there is a reasonable certainty that one may get 
his principal returned when he needs it. 

Let those who own, control, and manage corporations 
for the sole benefit of themselves provide the "new 
money" needed to keep their moneymaking schemes 
going. 

Individuals would better keep their savings in their 
savings bank until they have accumulated enough to 
purchase a first mortgage on approved real estate, or a 
guaranteed first mortgage bond, a government, state, 
county, city or school bond, even though the rate of 
interest may not be so enticing as offered by more 
promising but much less secure securities! 

There is always a large element of risk involved in 
intrusting ones money with impersonal organizations 
to use, manage, and control without a definite assurance 
of the return of the money when it may be needed. 

PREFERRED SHARES OF STOCK 

A recent decision handed down by the Illinois 
Supreme Court deals a severe blow to the control and 
domination of corporations by intriguing cliques of 
majority holders of common stock. 



CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 67 

The court decided that the state constitution pro- 
vided that no corporate stock shall be denied the right 
to vote. Heretofore, it has been the practice for small 
cliques, and in many instances for a single individual, 
to control a corporation by the simple device of voting 
a majority of the common shares of stock. The holders 
of shares of preferred stock being denied the privilege 
and right of voting. 

The scheme of financing and controlling a corpora- 
tion usually worked was to issue both common and 
"pref erred stock. For illustration $325,000 of common 
stock divided into shares of $100 each; and $650,000 
of preferred stock divided into shares of $100 each. 

The organizers of the corporation would scheme to 
retain for themselves 1657 shares of the common stock, 
paying themselves for these shares by turning in a little 
struggling business or expert service, good name, or 
good will, most anything except "new money"! The 
1593 minority shares were offered for sale to "suckers," 
usually to employees with the alluring bait of "owning 
an interest in the business!" 

The preferred shares were offered and sold to any 
one who could be induced to purchase them. The 
minority stockholders are counted on to pay into the 
treasury $159,300 in cash; the preferred share holders, 
$650,000. The minority common stockholders, and 
the preferred are expected to fur'nish $809,300 of the 
new money needed to run the business, and the 
holders of these stocks would have no voice in the 
management and control of that business. 

The controlling interests actually paid in but little, 
how much need not be revealed; but the holders of the 
1657 shares of common stock take possession of the 
$809,300 in cash, elect all officials, fix their salaries. 



68 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

determine all expenditures, and manage the business 
as though it were their very own ! 

The decision of the Supreme Court of Illinois means 
that the holders of the 6500 shares of 'preferred stock 
shall have the same voting privilege as the holders of 
common stock! The effect of this decision will be to 
upset and disarrange the smug organizations of many 
of the corporations in Illinois; and hereafter these 
manipulators will find it necessary to control a majority 
of the shares of both common and preferred stock, and 
this is likely to enlarge the charmed circle of these con- 
trolling interests. But while this is a step in the direc- 
tion of economic justice, it leaves the fundamental 
wrong just where it was. The holders of a majority of 
shares of stock will continue to dominate and control 
these corporation enterprises; shares of stock are made 
superior to men and intelligence ! 

The constitutional provision on which the court 
based its decision reads: — "The general assembly shall 
provide by law that in all elections for directors or man- 
agers of incorporated companies every stockholder 
shall have the right to vote in person or by proxy for 
the number of shares of stock owned by him for as many 
persons as there are directors or managers to be elected 
* * * and such directors or managers shall not be 
elected in any other manner." 

This provision of the constitution furnishes a strik- 
ing illustration of the power and influence wielded over 
representative bodies elected to represent the people, 
by the moneyed power and its corporation attorneys; 
and it portends the obstinacy of the resistance that this 
powerful influence will marshal when any attempt is 
made to enfranchise that great "army of stockholders" 



CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 69 

whose, "new money is needed" to finance the cor- 
porations of the country ! 

But the fight will have to be made and the battle 
won or it will not be many years before all of the sur- 
plus wealth of the country will be owned by a very few 
men. The only reason these few do not own it all now 
instead of the bulk of it, is that the people as fast as 
they are stripped of their savings, go to work and 
produce some more; and it is this "new money" that is 
being earned and saved that the operators," * * * 
expect to get * * * from our customers each year" ! 

These corporation manipulators follow practically 
the same code of ethics as do the professional gamblers. 
When the player has lost all his money, the gambler is 
through with him; but he advises him to go out and 
raise some new money, and expresses the hope that 
"You may have better luck next time!" This much in 
all fairness should be said for the gambler, that so long 
as his money lasted the player had a gambler's chance, 
and he was permitted to play the game ! 

It must be apparent that all these flagrant abuses 
are the direct result of the centralization of domination 
and control of the financial affairs of corporations into 
the hands of fewer and fewer individuals. This self 
appointed few take it upon themselves to look after 
the best interests of the many, with the usual disastrous 
results that befell the 105 minority stock holders in 
the Brightwood Hotel scheme! 



CHAPTER III 

The Administration of Public Schools 
state departments of education 

Let US turn to the consideration of the subject of 
the tendency toward centraHzation of control in the 
administration of pubhc education. 

Nowhere is this menacing tendency more noticeable 
than in the organization and reorganizations of State 
Departments of Education. There is a persistent and 
aggressive movement all over the country towards the 
centralization of management and control in the 
State Departments of Education. Along with this, 
and a part of the same propaganda, is the movement 
toward the centralizing of educational control in the 
United States Bureau of Education or in an independ- 
ent Department of Education. 

This growing tendency manifested in the states and 
in the National government to assume authority to 
direct, supervise, and control public education, is 
vicious. It is manifestly against public policy, and 
threatens the safety of the foundation of our public 
schools. 

We must keep clearly in our minds the fact that in 
their origin, and in their intent and purpose, the public 
schools, and the private and parochial schools, are 
essentially local institutions. They belong, primarily, 
to the people of the community for the education of 
their children. 

The public schools belong legally to the people of 
the school districts in which they are located. The 

70 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 71 

title to the public school property is vested in the local 
school boards, trustees, or boards of education of the 
school districts. The taxpayers, and every self sup- 
porting man and woman is a taxpayer, pay for the build- 
ings, their furnishings and equipment, maintenance, 
and in the main, the running expenses of their schools. 

As it has been stated before, the inherent responsi- 
bility and obligation for the education of the child 
rests upon the shoulders of the pal'ents of the child, 
or of those placed in parental relation to the child. 
It was in response to this obligation and responsibility 
that the people of pioneer communities first organized 
their school districts, started their schools, and have 
continued to maintain and to support them. 

The legal voters of the school districts elect their 
representatives, trustees, directors, or members of 
boards of education, except in those places where they 
have been deprived of their inherent right by state 
enactment, to manage and maintain their schools for 
them. 

This inherent obligation of the people of the com- 
munity carries with it the right to determine the kind 
of a school they will have for the education of their 
children; and the state should move cautiously before 
it attempts to interfere with, or limit the inalienable 
right to local self government in their school affairs. 

We know and fully appreciate the fact that there is 
a wide range of diversity among schools in different 
communities within the same county, in the different 
counties of the same state, and in the different states 
of the United States; but this is as it should be. 

It is quite likely that the people of Brookline, 
Massachusetts would protest vigorously against any 
attempt to transplant the many excellent features 



72 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

of the school system of Fort Smith, Arkansas, into the 
public schools of Brookline; and one may readily 
imagine the consequences were an attempt made by the 
State Department of Education to transplant Brook- 
line's finely organized school system to Fort Smith ! 

The people in each of these small cities have built 
up a system of schools adapted to their respective 
ideals and requirements. It would be the height of 
folly for any outside authority to assume to undertake 
to impose even what educational experts, so called, 
might agree were the superior features of one of these 
widely separated school systems, upon the other. 

While these two systems of schools are character- 
istically different, essentially there is little difference 
after all. A pupil who may have completed the work 
of a particular grade in one of these systems of schools, 
in the event of his transfer to the schools of the other, 
will enter the school of that system and keep right along 
in his studies with little if any interruption. 

The school in each community is, or should be, an 
expression of the educational sentiment of the people of 
that community. Even in the large cities where all 
the schools are under one uniform system of control 
and supervision, there is as great difference between 
two schools in different localities as there would be 
between a school in Brookline and another school in 
Fort Smith. 

The general educational tone and character of a 
school or a system of schools exhibit the level of the 
general average educational sentiment of the people 
of the community. It is a tactical blunder for a state 
to undertake to superimpose an all "ready to wear" 
school system upon a community that has not asked 
for it, and that is not prepared for it, although theoreti- 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 73 

cally it may be just the kind of a school system that 
community needs. 

This brings up the question of what should be done 
with regard to those parents who are indifferent to 
or negligent of their duty of providing for the educa- 
tion of their children, and those scattering communi- 
ties which fail to make adequate provision for a school 
worthy of the name. And what should be done with 
those poorer sections of a state, whole counties in some 
states, where tlie assessed value of all the taxable prop- 
erty even when taxed to the legal limit, does not 
provide sufficient revenue to support schools for the 
minimum number of days required by law. The con- 
sideration of these unfortunate cases brings us to that 
very important subject of, 

STATE AND NATIONAL AID FOR EDUCATION 

The only justification of public free schools sup- 
ported by the taxation of private property, is based 
upon the theory that it is for the public welfare, the 
safety of society, and for the security of public and 
private property that the people be educated. For 
these reasons private property is taxed for the support 
of free public schools. 

The majority of parents and guardians accepts the 
obligation and responsibility for the education of their 
children, and willingly provides for them and sends 
them to school. 

There can be no reasonable doubt but that those 
parents who are financially able to send their children 
to school and neglect or refuse to do so, should be 
compelled to do so; and that those parents who are 
too poor to provide for their children and to send them 



74 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

to school should be helped in so far as necessary to 
enable them to do so. 

It seems only fair and reasonable when those citi- 
zens who have property but no children to be educated 
are required to pay taxes for the support of public free 
schools, that the state is morally bound to enact laws 
by which those who fail to send their children to school 
can be forced to do so. But the authority for the en- 
forcement of these compulsory attendance laws should 
be vested in the school authorities of the school dis- 
tricts where the offending parents or guardians reside. 

The state legislature enacts the laws to enable the 
people of the school districts through their chosen 
school officials to carry out the purposes for which the 
schools were established and are supported. 

For this reason, any provision for state attendance 
officials, is a presumptuous usurpation of authority 
which rightfully belongs to the people of the local school 
districts. 

The same principle seems to hold in regard to the 
money raised from the tax levied on the property of 
the school districts for the support of the schools. 
While the state legislature enacts the necessary laws 
providing authority for raising money for the support 
of schools, it should be left to the people of the several 
school districts to levy the tax subject to the require- 
ments and restrictions of law. 

The point we wish to emphasize is that the schools 
belong, of right, to the people, not en viasse in the sense 
of the State, but to the men and women living in a 
legally prescribed district, the men and women one 
meets on the street, in the stores and shops, in the 
factories, on and from the farms, in the oflSces and in 
the homes. These people have the inherent right to 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 75 

select the site for the school building, to decide how 
much money shall be appropriated for the school build- 
ing, the kind of a building it shall be, to elect their 
school officers to represent them in the management 
and conduct of their school, to determine how many 
days their schools shall remain in session beyond the 
minimum number of days provided by law, and to 
have a governing voice in school affairs generally. 
In fact, the school is or should be a strictly local com- 
munity institution, and it should not be permitted 
under any pretext whatsoever to become a State nor a 
National Institution ! 

With regard to what should be done about the school 
districts and the counties in a state which need financial 
assistance, the answer seems simple enough. In any 
school district where, based upon an honest assessment 
of property, the maximum of revenue derived from 
the tax levy is not sufficient to support a good school 
for the required length of term, the state should furnish 
the amount of additional money necessary to comple- 
ment the local fund, from a state wide school tax levied 
and collected for that purpose. 

There should be provision made in every state for a 
state wide tax that would yield sufficient revenue to 
supplement the school funds raised by those school 
districts which, after having levied the maximum rate 
provided by law, find that they have not enough money 
to maintain a good school. But this state school fund 
should be collected and appropriated for the sole 
use of those school districts in the state, which are 
are not financially able to maintain their schools with- 
out state aid; and it should not be apportioned back 
to the wealthy and populous centers, as it is now 
so generally done, that need no assistance. 



76 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

But this financial assistance from the pubHc funds 
of the state should not be seized upon as a pretext for 
state officials to assume authority to inspect those 
schools, nor to prescribe nor impose restrictions upon 
the local school officials, beyond such rules and regu- 
lations as might be found necessary to enable the state 
auditor to decide whether or not the amount of assist- 
ance requested is actually needed, and that it will be 
expended for the purpose for which it is appropriated. 
It should not be assumed nor implied even that the 
amount of money apportioned to any school district is 
in any sense a gratuity, but a legitimate part of the 
school funds of the district. This would enable each 
state to provide adequately for, — "A thorough system 
of free schools whereby all children of the state may 
receive a good common school education." 

A number of the states have made provision for a 
state school fund, but unfortunately that fund is usually 
distributed on the basis of the number of children in the 
districts without regard to the financial needs of the 
districts. 

There are inequalities and inconsistencies in the 
practical working out of any plan for tlie support of 
local district schools from a local tax on the property 
of the school district that have come about by the rapid 
growth of cities in the great industrial and commercial 
centers. It is not uncommon to find the great bulk of 
taxable property located in an industrial school dis- 
trict in which there are but few children, while in an 
adjoining residential district, there are many children 
and but little taxable property. Under the local 
school district taxing system this valuable property 
of the industrial district, does not pay its fair proportion 
of the school taxes. 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 77 

It hardly seems fair for a village or a small country 
town dependent upon the surrounding farming com- 
munity for its support, to be permitted to form a school 
district of its corporate limits, and to support a graded 
school and a high school from the taxes levied upon the 
banks, stores, elevators, mills, creameries, blacksmith 
and wagon shops, garages and railroad property, and 
to exclude the children of that surrounding country 
from its superior school privileges. And there are the 
cities in which a large portion of the wealth of each state 
is centralized. Should not these wealthy cities and 
their immediate environs be made to contribute to 
the support of public schools in the many sparsely 
settled and poorer school districts of the state? 

The financing of education is without doubt a mat- 
ter of national concern. 

The Government of the United States has done 
much to encourage education in the past and it is to 
be hoped that it will do much more in the future. In 
its appropriations of money it should apply the same 
principle in its distribution that was suggested for the 
basis of apportionment of state funds among the school 
districts. The money should be apportioned to those 
states or sections of the country m need of financial 
assistance. 

To specify, one of the objections to the Federal 
Vocational Education Act is that the apportionment of 
the scanty appropriation of Federal vocational educa- 
tion funds is made, — first, upon the basis of the popula- 
tion of the states, and second, within the states, on the 
"matching dollars" basis! The result of this political 
distribution is that the money goes to the centers where 
federal and state aid is least needed. 



78 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

Of the $4,000,000 allotted to the states for voca- 
tional education for the year ending June 30, 1922, 
the States of New York, Pennsylvania, and Illinois 
were allotted $1,074,990.21! The lion's share of this 
allotment to these three States went to the cities of 
New York, Buffalo, Philadelphia, Pittsburg, and 
Chicago! For illustration, take Illinois for the year 
ending June 30, 1921. The federal allotment to the 
State of Illinois for that year was the munificent sum 
of $157,519.37! The State "matched" this amount 
and added $82,971.05 to it, making a grand total 
amourft of $398,009.79 to be apportioned to those 
schools that were fortunate enough to be able to 
"match" the amount of the combined federal and state 
appropriations for the aid and encouragement of 
vocational education in the state of Illinois. Of this 
total amount, the city of Chicago was awarded 
$137,729.34, or more than 34 per cent; and the Town 
of Cicero in the same county managed to get $18,972.34, 
or 4.76 per cent of the total federal and state funds, 
and more than the cities of Peoria, Rockford, Moline, 
Rock Island, and East St. Louis combined ! The basis 
of apportionment, and the conditions and restrictions 
imposed combine to preclude those boys and girls most 
in need of vocational training and guidance from the 
benefits of the appropriations, and the great bulk of 
the money goes to those populous centers which are 
abundantly able to provide vocational training without 
financial assistance. 

Another objection to the Vocational Education 
Act is the elaborate over head machinery it provides 
for the direction and control of vocational education. 
The government assumes that it is vitally interested in 
vocational education, and that the people and their 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 79 

school oflScials are but remotely interested, and that 
it can be carried on effectively only when administered 
after a federal formula. 

How did the men and women manage to get their 
vocational training before the federal government 
decided to take over the direction and control of that 
branch of education in 1917? 

The great industries of this country were pretty 
well developed and they seemed to be fairly efficiently 
managed even before 1917. There must have been 
some degree of technical and vocational training neces- 
sary to design and construct the steam engine, gas 
engine, except the government's widely advertised but 
little used Liberty Motor, the telegraph, the telephone, 
the electric light, the labor saving farm machinery, 
the printing press, and the thousands of intricate and 
delicate instruments and tools in daily use in the arts 
and the trades. 

If the Federal government and the State really 
desire to aid and encourage industrial and vocational 
education they should make it possible for the boys 
and girls from those more remote rural communities 
that offer no opportunities for getting vocational 
training, and where the local school authorities can 
not possibly meet the conditions and limitations laid 
down by the Federal Board of Education to have the 
benefit of it. The federal government might appro- 
priate a fund providing for scholarships in standard 
technical and trade schools for talented and deserving 
boys and girls to be chosen from the school districts 
and counties of the various states by some fair competi- 
tive method. This or some similar plan based upon the 
same principle would insure a wider distribution of 



80 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

vocationally trained young men and women over the 
whole country. 

There is a persistent and growing tendency on the 
part of the school politicians to centralize wider powers 
of supervision and control of public education in the 
officials of State Departments of Education; and 
thereby to relieve the people, their school directors of 
the school districts, the school boards of the cities, 
and the County Supermtendents of much of their 
responsibility, authority, and rights. 

There has been an active and aggressive campaign 
conducted, and some definite movements made to 
enlarge the scope of activity and the authority of the 
National Bureau of Education over the public schools 
of the country. But up to this time these advocates of 
the Nationalization of education happily have not been 
able to convince a majority of the members of congress 
that public education is a National question rather than 
a State and local community question. 

The "stock" argument for state domination and 
control of the public schools is that the state through 
its State Department of Education knows better than 
the parents of the children what a good school is and 
what the standards of their school should be! 

It is the "stock" argument in favor of centralization 
of authority the world over. It was not so long ago 
that the highly centralized and autocratic government 
of the German Empire was cited and praised as a fine 
example of an efficient and beneficent govermnent! 

Parents have an abiding faith in their ability to 
choose a desirable husband for their daughter, or the 
right sort of a wife for their son more wisely than their 
offspring is likely to do; but the fond and over officious 
parents experiejice unsurmountable difficulties in con- 



THE ADMINISTItATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 81 

sumating their favorable matches. The sons and 
daughters in this country, at any rate, assert their 
inahenable right of deciding this one question for them- 
selves. 

The normal adult individual is the best judge of 
what is best for his own interests, and should be left 
to make his own choice for himself and for his minor 
children ! 

Whether or not some one else might choose more 
wisely for him, is not the question. The responsibility 
and the inherent right rests within him, and he must 
be conceded the right and the liberty of exercising his 
prerogative. 

In educational matters, the opportunity for him to 
make his choices and to decide wisely, is right in the 
school affairs of his own school district. 

The Bureau of Education at Washington has pre- 
pared and distributed an official Bulletin on the subject 
of the "Organization of State Departments of Educa- 
tion," Bulletin, 1920 No. 46, for which the Commissioner 
of Education, P. P. Claxton wrote the "Introduction." 

As this Bulletin treats this subject officially and 
authoritatively, we shall take the liberty of quoting 
from it, and of making comment upon its recommenda- 
tions. 

The Commissioner of Education recommends, 
"For the effective application of these principles. 
States departments of education should be organized 
somewhat as follows: — 

1. "A State Board of Education, non-partisan, non- 
professional, made up of men and women of affairs, 
selected from the state at large because of their fitness 
for this position rather than for their fitness for some 
other" etc. 



82 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

"The State Board of Education should have general 
control of all educational interests of the State as 
embodied in the public elementary and secondary 
schools for normal children, in the schools for special 
classes of children, as the deaf, the blind, the crippled, 
subnormal and incorrigible children and in schools for 
special kinds and phases of education, etc. 

2. "A State commissioner of Education elected 
by the State Board of Education from the country at 
large and only because of professional preparation and 
administrative ability. * * * The term of office 
should have no reference to the change of officers con- 
nected with the partisan government of the State. It 
should be indefinite or for a period of years long enough 
to make possible the consistent development of ad- 
ministrative policies." 

"The commissioner of education should be the execu- 
tive officer of the State board of education, and under 
its general control, should have charge of the entire 
public school system of the State and should be given 
such freedom of action as is necessary for executive 
efficiency." (Italics ours.) 

3. "A competent Staff of expert deputies, assis- 
tants, and clerks, appointed by the state board of edu- 
cation upon the recommendation of the commissioner 
of education. * * * " 

"The organization of the department of education 
of the State of Alabama, which follows closely recom- 
mendations made by the United States Bureau of 
Education, illustrates fairly well what is needed for 
states of average size." 

"In Pennsylvania, New York, and Massachusetts 
the departments of education approach the ideal 
for the larger States." (Italics ours.) 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 83 

Here we have the question of the Nationah'zing, 
Centralizing, and Institutionah'zing of the public 
school in a nut shell. By one fell swoop the public 
schools that have been organized, built up and sup- 
ported by the people of the local communities for 
the education of the children of the communities are to 
be taken over bodily and placed under the "control" of, 
"A State Board of Education of seven to nine members, 
and in charge of a commissioner of education elected 
from the country at large"! 

Fathers and mothers are you sleeping! Think what 
this means, and what it portends! 

STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION OF ALABAMA 

As the United States Commissioner of Education 
has cited the State Department of Education of Ala- 
bama as having been organized following recommenda- 
tions made by the United States Bureau of Education, 
and "In Pemisylvania, New York, and Massachusetts 
the departments of education approach the ideal for 
the larger states," it may not be out of place to com- 
ment upon some of the conditions resulting from the 
organization of state public school systems "following 
recommendations made by the United States Bureau of 
Education, and in those States that "approach the 
ideal." 

From the Digest of laws relating to State Boards of 
Education we find that Alabama has a State Board of 
Education composed of the "Governor and State 
Superintendent of Schools, ex officio, six members 
appointed by the Governor from persons not subject 
to board's authority." "Appointed members, 12 
years." 



84 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

"Powers and duties. General control and super- 
vision over public schools except 3 institutions of higher 
education r adopts rules and regulations for the sanita- 
tion of schools, physical examination of school children, 
and enforces, in conjunction with other State authori- 
ties, rules relating to school health, compulsory edu- 
cation, and child conservation; prescribe minimum 
contents of courses of study for public elementary and 
high schools except in cities of 2000 or more inhabitants ; 
prescribe rules for the certification of teachers and for 
biennial school census; prescribes forms and blanks for 
use of all local boards; requires all private, denomina- 
tional, and parochial schools to submit annual reports; 
conducts investigations into educational needs of the 
State; administers vocational education; general super- 
vision of educational work of all charitable, penal, 
reformatory, and child-caring institutions maintained 
in whole or in part by the State; equalizes public school 
facilities." 

Thus it will be seen that under the plan of "Organi- 
zation of the Department of Education of the State of 
Alabama, which follows closely recommendations made 
by the United States Bureau of Education" about all 
the people of the local school districts and of the counties 
have left for them to do m the matter of education, is to 
vote for the Governor, and State Superintendent of 
schools, pay their school taxes, and provide the chil- 
dren! 

Incidentally this new "Organization," centraliza- 
tion, and crystalization of authority adds about 
twenty, "Members of Staffs of State Department of 
Education," and more than doubles the amount of 
salaries paid to members of the staff of the State 
Department of Education of Alabama. The additional 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 85 

$45,000 absorbed by this new "Organization" would 
far better have been spent upon the poorer rural 
schools. 

But Alabama took the hook, line, and sinker along 
with the alluring bait, and she is hooked for fair! It 
will doubtless be of interest to the school patrons and 
to the politicians to watch the salary budget of the 
"Organization" of the State department of education 
grow. It has made a good healthy start already. The 
official Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Educa- 
tion gives the, "Membership of Staffs" and "Salaries 
paid each," presumably for the year 1920, totaling 
$83,010. 

According to the same official Bulletin, the State of 
Indiana's total salary list for the same period was but 
$41,900, and the State Department of Education of 
Indiana has never appeared to be seriously hampered 
in its activities for the want of competent and efficient 
members of its staff. 

There was a definite movement made in Indiana to 
"Reorganize" the State Department of Education so 
as to make that department, "Approach the ideal for 
the larger States" by making the State Superintendent 
of Instruction a creature of the State Board of Educa- 
tion; but the voters of that State much to their credit 
defeated the proposed amendment to their State Con- 
stitution. 

STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION OF NEW YORK. 
THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

The most glittering specimen of a perfectly central- 
ized, crystallized, and fossilized State System of Educa- 
tion is that arranged and displayed in that magnificent 
five million dollar marble mausoleum, the State Educa- 



86 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

tion Building at Albany. The official title of this per- 
fect specimen is, "The University of the State of New 
York." 

In order to see this glittering specimen at its best 
one should secure a ticket of admission to one of those 
annual memorial pageants heralded as the "Convoca- 
tion of the University of the State of New York," 
held in the marble mausoleum at Albany at that season 
of the year when the autumn foliage in Northern New 
York is most gorgeous and impressive. 

There are pomp and high ceremonial in cap and 
gown. Provision seems to be made before hand for 
caps and gowns for most everyone having a part in the 
pageant. Those who may not be so fortunate as to be 
provided with a degree of the regular sort are likely 
to be honored with an LL.D., and provided with appro- 
priate regalia. 

There being no students, there are no graduation 
exercises of course. The exercises of the Convocation 
of the University of the State of New York following 
the customary course of memorial exercises, are 
largely lauditory. There is usually a liberal sprinkling 
of honorary degrees among the dependable adherents 
who are gathered from all over the State, and a number 
of distinguished guests from beyond the borders of the 
State. The participants in these annual pageants, 
and especially those who have been rewarded and sig- 
nally honored with a degree, scatter to their home 
towns feeling that they have been pennitted to partici- 
pate prominently in a great achievement for public 
education, not only for the great State of New York, 
but for the world. To them, and to all who may have 
been honored at previous annual convocations, the 
University of the State of New York, with its State 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 87 

Department of Education is regarded as one of the 
great educational institutions of the country. 

The University of the State of New York is unique. 
It owns no buildings other than its five million dollar 
State Education Building at Albany, no student's 
dormitories, no college campus, and no athletic field; 
and it does not have a football team. 

Most ordinarily intelligent persons are able to form 
some sort of an idea of what the word, University 
means when it is used in its ordinary sense outside the 
State of New York, as University of Pennsylvania, 
Columbia University, University of Chicago, Univer- 
sity of California, University of Michigan, Illinois State 
Normal University, and Valparaiso University of In- 
diana. These are tangible educational institutions, 
each has a physical location, a campus, school buildings, 
a student body, faculty members, and it functions as 
an educational institution. 

There is a Board of Regents of the University of the 
State of New York made up of twelve members, most 
of them LL.D.'s, elected practically for life by the joint 
action of the two houses of the State Legislature, one 
member elected each year. This Board of Regents 
with its appointees would seem to be the University 
of the State of New York. 

The regents exercise the general management and 
supervision of all the public schools and all the other 
educational interests of the State. They confer certifi- 
cates, diplomas and degrees of all sorts upon those 
persons who meet their requirements. 

The regents register both domestic and foreign 
institutions in terms of New York standards, fix the 
value of degrees, diplomas, and certificates issued by 
institutions of other states and countries, such as Yale, 



88 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

Harvard, Boston School of Technology, Johns Hop- 
kins, University of California, Oxford, Cambridge, and 
Heidleberg. 

The regents' examination questions furnish the 
standards of instruction in the schools of the state from 
the elementary schools to the colleges. 

The regents incorporate, or refuse to incorporate, 
institutions or associations for the promotion of science, 
literature, art, history, or other departments of knowl- 
ledge or of education in any way, associations of teach- 
ers, students, graduates of educational institutions, 
and other associations whose approved purposes are 
in whole or in part of educational or cultural value 
deemed worthy of recognition and encouragement by 
the Board of Regents! 

Besides its restrictive powers of limitation upon 
all educational effort and initiative in the State of New 
York, the Board of Regents assumes to extend to the 
people at large increased educational opportunities, 
facilities, to stimulate interest therein, to recommend 
methods, designate suitable teachers and lecturers, 
conduct examinations, — the regents make a fetish of 
examinations — , to grant or refuse credentials, and to 
otherwise organize, aid, and conduct such work. A 
highly altruistic and beneficent labor of love for which 
"the people at large" should be duly appreciative and 
fervently grateful. All the remuneration these capable 
regents are vouchsafed for all they do to public educa- 
tion in the great State of New York, over and beyond 
the honor and the dignity that go with the power and 
authority of the position, is their, "Necessary ex- 
penses," — a sort of "cost plus" proposition. r ^ 

The regents elect the Commissioner of Education 
who by virtue of his office becomes the executive officer 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 89 

of the Board of Regents, and President of the Univer- 
sity of the State of New York. His salary is ten 
thousand (10,000) dollars a year and a liberal allowance 
for traveling expenses. He is the recognized "Chief 
executive officer of the State System of Education and 
of the University." It is not necessary to enumerate 
his responsibihties and duties, beyond stating that they 
are manifold. 

There have been a number of prominent men who 
have graced the position of Commissioner of Education 
of the State of New York, among them Hon. Andrew 
S. Draper, of revered memory, and Dr. John J. Finley. 
Dr. Finley is regarded as one of the most brilhant and 
influential champions of broad and liberal scholarship. 
He stands preeminent among educators. It would 
be of interest to his many friends and admirers to know 
why he gave up the presidency of the University of 
the State of New York for a position on the staff of 
the New York Times. 

The whole State System of Education is a State 
System in fact as well as m name. By the time any 
bit of the responsibihty for the education of their chil- 
dren, or of initiative in local educational affairs trickles 
down through the meshes of the organization of the 
State System to "the people at large," about all that 
is left for them besides the tax receipts are the "Do's" 
and "Dont's" of the State Department of Education 
in the marble mausoleum at Albany. 

This brings us to the consideration of the luxurious 
expense to the taxpayers of one of the United States 
Commissioner's "approach the ideal" State Depart- 
ments of Education. 

The annual payroll of the staff of the Department of 
Education housed in the memorial Education Building 



90 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

at Albany, amounted to the nominal sum of Eight 
hundred twenty two thousand nine hundred (822,900) 
dollars according to the Bulletin, 1920, No. 46 of the 
Bureau of Education, and this amount evidently did 
not include the "Necessary expenses" of the members 
of the Board of Regents. 

This amount exceeds by over forty four thousand 
(44,000) dollars, the totals of the amounts expended 
for the same period for the salaries of "Staffs of State 
Departments of Education" in the States of Massa- 
chusetts, Vermont, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, 
Michigan, Indiana, and Illinois!! 

This will serve to show what one of these "approach 
the ideal" organizations of a State System of Education 
may be depended upon to absorb of the money raised 
by taxation for "Educational purposes." 

The greater part of this money is spent for what the 
corporations call, "Non productive overhead." 

So far as the tabulation of the Staff of the Depart- 
ment of Education shows, there were only twenty- 
three teachers employed, eighteen teachers of physical 
education, and five teachers of Americanization. There 
are 431 names on the pay roll, and of this number 98 
were employed in and about the marble mausoleum, 
their duties grading from Supervising Engineer to, 
"30 cleaners." 

There were 343 names on the staff who seem to have 
been employed in the Department of Education proper. 

A fair example of the manner in which the educa- 
tional funds are apportioned and spent in one of these 
ideal organizations of State Departments of Education 
is furnished by the salary list of the Americanization 
Bureau of the New York State Department of Educa- 
ion. One specialist and twenty -seven assistants were 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 91 

paid $70,050, while the 5 teachers received but $7,500 
of the $77,550 spent for Americanization ! 

Teachmg foreigners to speak, read and write Enghsh 
is the foundation of all work in Americanization. The 
Americanization Bureau of the New York State De- 
partment of Education might have functioned more 
effectively, and might have accomplished vastly more 
in the way of practical Americanization with one 
specialist and forty-three teachers, the number that 
the amount of money paid to the twenty-seven assis- 
tant specialists would have provided. One live, cap- 
able teacher will accomplish more practical results in 
Americanization than a half dozen specialists. 

One of the State Superintendents quoted in the 
Bulletin, made the statement that a state department 
of education can reach a high degree of efficiency with a 
force of about forty persons, including stenographers 
and clerks. And the writer of the Bulletin comments as 
follows: "It is evident, therefore, that no hard and fast 
rule as to the personnel of State departments can be 
laid down, but it is a fact that very few of the depart- 
ments, even in the larger States, have as many as forty 
persons on their staffs." 

The Department of Education of the State of New 
York at the time of the compilation of the Bulletin 
employed 343 persons, exclusive of the 98 employed 
in caring for the marble mausoleum Education Build- 
ing at Albany ! 

At the least estimate, seven hundred thousand 
(700,000) dollars of the eight hundred twenty-two 
thousand nine hundred (822,900) dollars of the school 
tax money appropriated for salaries of the occupants 
of the Education Building at Albany, might far better 
have been spent for the support and encouragement of 



92 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

education in the State, for the improvement of rural 
and elementary schools in the poorer and more remote 
and sparsely settled districts, for supplementing the 
school funds raised by local taxation, thus enabling 
such districts to pay adequate salaries and to secure 
better teachers, and to lengthen the school term. 

If this extravagant dissipation of the school tax 
money of the "people at large" might be taken as an 
index of the superior excellency and efficiency of the 
public schools of New York State, the "people at large" 
and their children might be congratulated, and the 
State Board of Regents of the University of the State 
of New York might be accorded high praise for its per- 
fect specimen of a crystalized State System of Education. 

The regrettable fact is according to the concensus of 
public opinion of school people outside of New York as 
well as the belief of many students of education within 
the State, that the schools of New York do not take as 
high rank as the schools of some of the other progressive 
States in many of those recognized essentials that go to 
make for good schools. 

The whole educational scheme of organization, and 
the methods of instruction are hampered by and con- 
fined to the narrow limitations of the "Regents' require- 
ments" and the "Regents' Examinations." The lack 
of incentive, inspiration, and initiative on the part of 
superintendents, principals, and teachers is apparent to 
even the casual observer. 

The net result of all discussion of better methods 
of instruction and of better things for the pupils in the 
schools is the all absorbing question: "Will it help 
our students to pass the Regents' Exams.?" "If it will 
help our students to pass, we are for it; but if not, we 
will have none of it." 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 93 

All education worthy of the name has for its pur- 
pose the growth and development of the student. The 
subject studied is a means to that end, and a mastery 
of the facts of the subject is not the chief end. 

The educational ideal the teacher may hold deter- 
mines the kind and the quality of his teaching. If he 
is inspired with the ideals of an educator, his best 
thought and effort is directed toward the mental 
development of his students. Each particular subject 
he teaches is utilized as a means to that end. He will 
endeavor to so present the subject as to lead his students 
to understand the successive steps involved, to appre- 
ciate the signijBcance of each step, and to test his mental 
grasp of the subject. His interest is centered on his 
students' mental reaction to the content of the subject. 

But the teacher whose task is set for him by the 
"experts" or the "Assistant experts" seated at their 
desks at the State Capital, must of necessity put aside 
the ideals and aims of an educator, and assume the 
duties and the methods of the tutor, coach, and drill- 
master. He understands that he must bend his efforts 
to the coaching of his students to pass the Regents' 
examination. He knows full well that his professional 
standing with the powers that be, depends upon the 
percentage of his pupils who "pass," and the average 
per cent of the pupils on the Regents' examination. 
The temptation and tendency is for the teacher to 
degenerate into a mere coach . 

Every high school and college student knows the 
difference in the methods of instruction of the teacher 
and the coach. 

The coach aims to prepare his pupils to answer 
seventy-five per cent of the questions which he knows 
from his experience are most likely to be asked by the 



94 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

examiners. He collects all the sets of examination 
questions he can lay his hands upon, and he drills his 
pupils upon the answers to those questions. He insists 
upon his pupils memorizing answers to questions. It 
is a 'cramming' and memorizing process from beginning 
to end. 

The New York State System of Education is funda- 
mentally wrong in principle. The State, through its 
elaborately and extravagantly organized State system 
of education hands down to the "people at large" a 
ready made system of education. It should be the 
other way round; the "people at large" should be 
pennitted to provide, manage, control, and conduct 
their own schools. The initiative should be left with 
the "people at large" where it rightfully belongs. 

All kinds of State inspection and supervision of 
public elementary and high schools by State inspectors, 
supervisors, directors, and specialists should be given 
up by the State Department of Education, and the duty 
and responsibility for inspection and supervision left 
to the city and school district authorities. 

The pretext that the local school boards, their 
superintendents, principals, and teachers who are 
directly in contact with the people can not be depended 
upon to provide and maintain efficient schools for their 
own children; but that State officials, political appoint- 
ees and employees far removed from responsibility and 
accountability to the people must be relied upon to 
provide, maintain, inspect, supervise, manage, and 
approve their schools for them is an absurd assumption ! 

The citizens of the great State of New York should 
rise in their might and rescue their schools from the bur- 
densome and deadening domination of the Board of 
Regents of the University of the State of New York. 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 95 

The people of every local school district should 
demand their birthright of the liberty to direct and 
control their own public school affairs witliout outside 
official interference so long as they keep within the 
requirements of the school laws. 

One thing is reasonably certain, the people through 
their local school trustees, school directors, or school 
boards would not be likely to make the schools any 
worse than the recent elaborate and expensive survey 
has shown them to be. It might take a little while for 
the parents, teachers, principals, and school officials 
to find themselves and to assume and exercise their 
new found freedom, of thought and action, once it was 
granted, but when they did realize their responsibility 
and freedom, there would be such a revival of local 
interest and reconstructive activity in school affairs in 
that State as it never experienced before in its educa- 
tional history. To be sure it would take an upheaval 
akin to a political revolution to accomplish it. 

It makes but little difference to the "people at 
large" in so far as their responsibility is concerned, 
how much the State Board of Regents of the University 
of New York meddles with, limits and restricts the 
training of lawyers, doctors, chiropodists, odontologists, 
optomerists, stenographers, and bookkeepers, and other 
highly specialized kinds of education. This may 
possibly be desirable. But it should be forced to relin- 
quish its strangle hold upon the elementary and second- 
ary public schools. 

There is little likliliood that this desirable reforma- 
tion will be brought about. The "Organization" of the 
State School System is too strongly intrenched in the 
deep recesses of the $5,000,000 marble mausoleum 
at Albany, and too well provisioned for a long siege 



96 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

with its million dollars a year appropriation for its 
sustenance to be expected to relinquish any of its 
authority, prerogatives, and patronage without stub- 
born resistance. There is enough political patronage 
to allay any opposition on the part of the political 
leaders to its continued domination and control of the 
public schools. 

It is the history of the human race, that whenever 
the people or any portion of the people acquiesce in or 
voluntarily surrender their inherent rights and respon- 
sibilities to those anxious and more willing to assume 
and to exercise them, that they are legally forfeited, 
and may not be regained without a revolutionary up- 
heaval. 

The hopelessness of the situation comes from the 
fact that the people have been led to believe that 
because their children are coached to pass the Regents' 
examinations, while those children who have been so 
unfortunate as to be instructed in the schools outside 
of New York usually fail to pass creditably the same 
examination, and because they have the most expen- 
sive and officious State Department of Education, 
housed in the finest Education Building in the land, 
that therefore they must have the best schools in the 
country. 

Pennsylvania's state school system 

The United States Commissioner of Education, 
Dr. Claxton, mentions Pennsylvania first among the 
three States in which the centralized Departments of 
Education "approach the ideal" for the larger states. 
But as the State of Pennsylvania has only recently 
determined to reorganize, centralize, and devitalize her 
public schools into a State domination and control 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 97 

System along the lines of New York State's perfected 
model, and as this reorganization is only fairly under 
way, and the process of crystalization is not nearly 
complete, it seems more appropriate to comment upon 
it after New York. 

The author of the Bulletin 1920, No. 46, on the 
subject of "Organization of State Departments of Edu- 
cation" in commenting on the "Members of Staffs of 
State Departments of Education and Salaries Paid 
Each," says, "Conditions have improved considerably 
in most of the States during the past five years, both in 
the number of employees and the salaries paid." 

"The State department which has made the most 
thorough reorganization in that time is undoubtedly 
that of Pennsylvania, which has been completely 
reorganized and greatly enlarged with more adequate 
salaries under the Superintendency of Dr. Finegan." 
"In Pennsylvania and New York most of the principal 
members of staffs receive between $4,000 and $5,500 
per annum"! 

The Hon. W. C. Sproul, Governor of Pennsylvania, 
could not have chosen and appointed a more adept 
and politic gentleman to superintend the delicate and 
dubious task of taking from the people their authority 
and inherent right to manage and control their own 
local school affairs, and to centralize and crystalize that 
authority and domination in an extravagant educa- 
tional political State Department of Education at 
Harrisburg than Dr. T. E. Finegan. 

Dr. Finegan, as deputy Commissioner of Education 
of the State of New York, had the requisite training 
and experience to fit him for the work Governor Sproul 
wished to have done in Pennsylvania. Dr. Finegan 
is credited with having the master mind that planned 



98 LOOKING TO OLH FOUNDATIONS 

and carried through the necessary legislation which has 
enlarged and entrenched the authority of the Board of 
Regents and its University of tlie State of New York 
beyond the possibility of being dislodged by any politi- 
cal means the people of that State might attempt. If 
given time enough to complete his machine, he is likely 
to put the public schools of Pennsylvania beyond the 
reach of interference on the part of the people, their 
school officials, and the teachers of that grand old State. 

It is said of Dr. Finegan, and believed by his friends, 
that he will soon build up a million dollar organization, 
and through it will dominate and regulate the school 
affairs of every local school district, academj^ and 
private school in the State; and that he will actually 
make the staid old citizens of that State like it! 

One wonders how those thrifty Pennsylvania 
"Dutch" managed to worry along for nearly one 
hundred and fifty years organizing their own neigh- 
borhood school districts, building their own school 
houses, furnishing and equipping them, employing their 
own school teachers, electing their school officials, 
district, county and State, and through them managing 
and directing their school affairs, when they might 
have sent over to their more progressive neighboring 
State of New York for an expert centralizer of school 
authority who would gladly and willingly have relieved 
them of all worry and responsibility for the education 
of their children except, of course, the paying of the 
bills, and feeding and clothing the children. 

Those who have been in touch with the progress of 
educational affairs for the past thirty years, do not 
need to be reminded that Pennsylvania has held a high 
place among the States educationally; that the public 
schools have been truly democratic in their manage- 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 99 

ment; that local self control and management of their 
public schools, and innate individual pride and interest 
in the education of their children, are the very founda- 
tion stones upon which the public schools have been 
built up, maintained and supported. 

Pennsylvania has been regarded all along as a pro- 
gressive state educationally. Under the leadership of 
that great, sane, nationally recognized educational 
leader, Nathan C. Schaeffer, that State won, and held 
the reputation of being conservately progressive. The 
best and foremost instructors, lecturers, and teachers 
of special subjects were engaged and assigned to teach- 
ers' institutes. There have been very few prominent 
educators, institute instructors, and public lecturers 
in this country who have not been chosen and engaged 
at one time or another to either conduct or to teach in 
one or more Teachers' Institutes in Pennsylvania; and 
these teachers and lecturers with one accord bore 
testimony of the progressiveness, and professional en- 
thusiasm of the teachers of Pennsylvania. 

This great leader built up the schools by the direct 
and effective method of bringmg the best available 
instruction and inspiration directly to the teachers right 
in their local environment. He knew and understood 
the people and how to reach them. He understood 
and appreciated the well established educational prin- 
ciple that all educational improvement and progress 
must grow from a rich subsoil of individual and com- 
munity interest and desire, and that it cannot be grown 
in a State Department of Education hothouse and 
transplanted to the local communities of the State and 
expected to thrive. 

Pennsylvania had one of the best working school 
systems in the country long before the politicians de- 



100 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

cided that the pubhc school system should be "Reor- 
ganized on broader lines" after the more attractive 
cut and style of the State School System of New York, 
which supported a patronage salary list of nearly a 
million dollars while the great State of Pennsylvania 
did not dispense over one-ninth of that amount! So 
the public schools were turned over to the "Reorgani- 
zation forces" to dominate and control, and the right 
of local management passed from the fathers and 
mothers. 

It is a sad commentary upon the work of the educa- 
tional institutions of Pennsylvania that Governor 
Sproul could not find a man in the State capable of 
building up a strong educational political organization 
for him. 

The reorganization plans were but fairly under way 
when the Bulletin referred to was published. It was 
enabled however to exhibit a staff of appointees and 
employees of the State Department of Education, and 
salaries of each amounting to the encouraging total of 
two hundred fifty-four thousand three hundred fifty 
(254,350) dollars, exclusive of salaries of stenographers, 
clerks and messengers! 

A careful survey of this list of the staff and the salary 
of each shows not less than sixty-one needless positions 
absorbing a grand total of the State school funds 
amounting to two hundred sixteen thousand seven 
hundred fifty (216,750) dollars; and an average salary 
of three thousand five hundred fifty-three (3,553) 
dollars. The elimination of these sixty-one super- 
numerary appointees from the payroll of the State 
Department of Education, would not interfere with 
the performance of the proper functions of the State 
Department of Education in the least. It would leave 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 101 

an executive staff of nine high salaried oflScials, a secre- 
tary to the Superintendent of PubHc Instruction, a 
bookkeeper, and the full complement of stenographers, 
clerks, messengers, etc. This is an ample working 
force to care for all the administrative agencies which 
properly belong to the province of the State in the 
administration of public school affairs. Any attempt 
on the part of the State Department of Education to 
undertake to do more becomes a direct interference 
with the purposeful work of other school officials, and 
of the school teachers. 

This is in no sense intended as a personal criticism 
of any of the men and women who are holding these 
lucrative and needless positions which have been 
created for them. No doubt they are all competent 
and efficient workers in their respective lines. The more 
competent and forceful these extraneous overhead 
people are, the more harm they are likely to do by their 
unwarranted interference with the duties of the 
regular workers. 

There is grave danger too that friendship and favor- 
itism are likely to influence appointments to these 
lucrative jobs in a great irresponsible State Organiza- 
tion. 

It is not beyond the pale of possibility that a 
director of a special subject might be inclined to favor 
a friendly specialist in his subject, who may have been 
instrumental in introducing his books in a goodly sized 
city at a strategic moment, and might recommend the 
appointment of this friendly person to a position on his 
staff at a fine salary. If so, similar motives might 
possibly influence appointments all down the line. 

With the momentum the reorganization forces have 
acquired, it should not take long for the salary list of 



102 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

the State Centralized School System to absorb $500,000 
of the school funds for these extraneous positions, in 
addition to that required for the salaries of those 
who are performing the duties which properly belong 
to the educational department of the State. 

From a reliable source comes the infonnation that 
for the year 1921-1922 the "Organization and Pay 
Roll" of the Department of Education of the Common- 
wealth of Pennsylvania had crept up to 153 officials, 
appointees and employees, and the total amount of the 
salaries to the tidy sum of $381,840 ! The total number 
of employees of the Department for the school year 
1918-1919 was 59; and the total amount of the pay 
roll was $112,000!! 

The State of Pennsylvania has made the same mis- 
take that a number of the other States have made, 
and that the spoils politicians are attempting to have 
other States make. The public schools are made a 
part of the political patronage of the Governor. The 
Governor appoints the six members of the State Board 
of Education. He appoints the Superintendent of 
Pubhc Instruction. Naturally, the State Superintend- 
ent being the creature of the Governor, is likely to 
appoint whomever the Governor may desire to have 
appointed, and he and the State Board of Education 
must carry out the policies of the Governor. This 
makes the public schools of the people the political 
foot ball of the State poHtical Organization of the 
dominant party. 

The administration of the public schools should be 
as far removed from the domination of the Governor 
as the State Judicial Department is, and just as inde- 
pendent of his authority. The people are fully as com- 
petent to choose wisely in the nomination and election 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 103 

of the State Superintendent as they are of the governor. 
The people have the inherent right to a direct voice 
in all matters pertaining to the educational interests of 
their children, and they should be accorded that right. 

THE CENTRALIZED STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM 
OF MASSACHUSETTS 

Massachusetts is the third of those states cited by 
Dr. Claxton which, "approach the ideal for the larger 
States." The Governor appoints the members of the 
State Board of Education; and he appoints the State 
Commissioner of Education. That tells the whole 
story ! 

The State department of education expended for 
salaries including stenographers, clerks, and book- 
keepers, one hundred seventy three thousand four 
hundred ten (173,410) dollars for the year the report 
was made to the United States Bureau of Education 
for the Bulletin, 1920, No. 46. This sum of money is 
easily $115,000 in excess of what it should have been. 
If this amount could have been spent for the aid of the 
more needy schools of the state, it would have done the 
cause of public education great good at a time when 
many school districts were in dire need of financial 
help, and the usefulness of the State Department of 
Education would not have been crippled in the least. 

A top-heavy and extravagantly organized State 
Department of Education serves about the same 
purpose in public school education that the guilded 
dome of the State House does to good government. 
The stately dome does keep in its place, and interferes 
in no way with the orderly management of local 
governmental affairs; and it does not have to be regilded 
every year. 



104 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

There are some indications of a movement among 
the people of Massachusetts towards decentralization 
of domination and control of public school affairs, and 
the return of the right of initiative, management, and 
control to the people of the local school districts. The 
State Board of Education of Massachusetts so it has 
been reported, has been shorn of much of its arbitrary 
authority, and it has subsided into more of an advisory 
body. 

Since it was in Massachusetts Bay Colony that our 
public schools had their beginning, and in their begin- 
ning were managed, controlled, and supported by the 
people of the local towns, it seems but natural and 
appropriate that the people of that State should lead in 
the movement for the return of the right to local self- 
government in tlieir public school affairs. 

The Cradle of Liberty surely has not ceased to rock ! 

THE STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF CONNECTICUT 

While on this subject of the centralization and 
crystalization of the domination and control of public 
education in State Departments of Education, let us 
not overlook the little conservative State of Connecti- 
cut with her eight counties and a total population of 
less than the city of Philadelphia, and with her total 
school enrollment in both pubhc and private elemen- 
tary and secondary schools of less than 300,000. Yet 
in the face of these seeming handicaps, her State Organ- 
ization can point to a political patronage staff of 
appointees, employees, and officials of the State Depart- 
ment of Education numbering nearly one hundred, 
and a salary list of two hundred thirty three thousand 
eight hundred seventy-five (233,875) dollars! 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 105 

As mentioned before, the State of Indiana with a 
population of 3,000,000, and a school enrollment of 
600,000, and with probably the best uniformly good 
schools in this country, has to worry along with a staff 
of officials, appointees, and employees of 19 members, 
and a total payroll of only forty-one thousand nine 
hundred (41,900) dollars! 

If the people of Connecticut would but arouse them- 
selves and smash their encrusted political patronage 
machine, take possession of their school affairs, and 
take $200,000 of the $233,875 absorbed by the State 
Department of Education, and apportion it to those 
school districts most in need of assistance in paying 
adequate salaries to teachers, and for the better equip- 
ment of school buildings, the schools would be toned 
up and greatly improved in efficiency. The public 
schools of Connecticut have the life directed, supervised, 
investigated, and inspected out of them! 

The state depaetment of education of Wiscon- 
sin has been heading toward State domination and 
control of public education. The salary list of the 
State department of Education as reported in the 
Bulletin amounted to eighty two thousand eight 
hundred eighty (82,880) dollars. 

The State Legislature could save fully forty 
thousand (40,000) dollars by withholding the appro- 
priation for the salaries of 12 or thirteen appointees 
who are attempting to perform the duties which belong 
to the county and the city superintendents. This 
would leave sufficient funds to increase the salary of 
the Superintendent of Public Instruction, and to 
provide for one more competent deputy. 

There is a tendency in Wisconsin as in a number of 
the other States, for the State University to assume to 



106 LOOKING TO OUK FOUNDATIONS 

exercise a sort of supervisory direction over public 
school affairs, and especially with regard to courses of 
study, and teachers in the high schools. 

The people and their school boards should set them- 
selves firmly against any such interference from that 
source. 

STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION OF MINNESOTA 

Minnesota is tending strongly toward State domina- 
tion and political control of the public schools. The 
Governor appoints the members of the State Board of 
Education; the State Board of Education appoints 
the State Commissioner of Education, appoints and 
defines the duties of all appointees and employees, 
and makes complete organization of the State depart- 
ment of Education! The people elect the governor. 
To the governor belongs the patronage. 

The salary list of the staff of appointees and 
employees of the State Department of Education, 
exclusive of the per diem and expenses of the members 
of the State Board of Education, for the year 1920 
amounted to eighty-seven thousand two hundred ten 
(87,210) dollars. This amount could have been reduced 
at least $47,000 without interfering in any way with the 
eflBciency of the State Department of Education, and 
to the material advantage of the schools. 

The States of Texas and California have gone one 
step further towards State political domination and 
control of the public schools than have any of the other 
states. 

Not only have these states taken over the domina- 
tion and control of the public schools through their 
State Boards of Education and their State Depart- 
ments of Education, but they have each placed the 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 107 

politically powerful weapon of providing the school 
books that the school children must use, and of fur- 
nishing them to all the children of the state free of cost, 
in the hands of the State Organization ! 

While this chimera of the State furnishing free 
school books to all the school children of the State is a 
cleverly conceived political expedient for gaining 
domination and control of the public schools with the 
immense patronage and tempting perquisites that go 
with it, it is at the fearful cost of the surrender of the 
individual right of the people to initiate, manage, and 
control their own local school affairs. 

We shall comment upon this phase of this subject 
further when we come to a discussion of the abuses in 
the methods of the sale, distribution and purchase of 
school books. 

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION OF TEXAS 

The State of Texas, according to the Bulletin of the 
United States Bureau of Education, has built up a 
salary list of "Members of Staffs of State Departments 
of Education and Salaries Paid Each" of one hundred 
thirteen thousand five hundred ninety (113,590) dollars 
including auditors, clerks, stenographers and porters; 
and the amount of the salaries paid to individuals is 
comparatively small. The State Superintendent of 
Public Instruction has a salary of but $4,000. 

In the State Department of Education of Pennsyl- 
vania there are 39 "Members of Staffs" who draw 
salaries of $4,000 or over up to $12,000! In the New 
York State Department of Education there are 16 
"Members of Staffs" drawing salaries ranging from 
$4,000 to $10,000! 

Thus it will be seen that in the matter of "salaries 



108 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

paid" to the "Members of Staffs of Departments of 
Education," Texas does not nearly "Approach the ideal 
for the larger States." 

It is in the number of extraneous appointees and the 
aggregate amount of salaries paid to them that the 
criticism is made. 

There are about twenty positions which might well 
be eliminated from the organization of the department, 
saving something like $75,000 of the public school funds 
for educational purposes. 

These worthy people could be of infinitely more 
service to the betterment of the schools by getting out 
into the schools and wielding their good influence as 
superintendents, principals, and teachers. 

The sum of seventy-five thousand dollars, or so 
much of it as might be needed, might well be spent 
in strengthening the State Department of Education 
for performing the proper functions of a State Depart- 
ment of Education. The State Superintendent of public 
Instruction should be paid a salary of not less than 
$7,500. The first assistant Superintendent should com- 
mand a salary of at least $4,000, and the other assistants 
in proportion. 

The supervisory work now attempted to be done 
by the State Department, except possibly, the voca- 
tional work under the aid of the Federal Board for 
Vocational Education, would better be done by the 
city superintendents, and the county superintendents 
whose duty it is. The State of Texas is spread over a 
superficial area of 265,895 square miles. This is 
greater by 4,826 square miles than the combined areas 
of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, 
Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, 
Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Indiana. 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 109 

The distances one must travel in traversing the 
State are practically the same as from Boston to Chi- 
cago, and from New York to Indianapolis ! 

Our official Bulletin 1920, No. 46 gives ten supervi- 
sors of rural schools, one chief supervisor and nine super- 
visors. It must be assmned that these rural supervisors 
were selected and appointed on account of their peculiar 
qualifications for that important work. 

However com.petent and eflScient any supervisor 
of any sort of school work may be, he will not accom- 
plish much in the way of improvement of a school 
unless he visits that school in person. He will probably 
stay in the school long enough to enable him to form 
an intelligent estimate of the teacher's work and of the 
community conditions in which the school is located 
in order that he may see wherein he may make helpful 
suggestions to that teacher. He will meet with the 
school directors, and make his suggestions and recom- 
mendations to them as to the immediate needs of the 
school. A rural supervisor will do his best work when 
he spends one day to a school — five schools a week. He 
might visit two or three in a day if he used a Ford, but 
there is a vast difference between visiting and super- 
vising a school. 

t But assuming that each of the nine supervisors of 
rural schools of Texas visits two schools a day for every 
school day in the school year, what a small fraction of 
the total number of the rural schools of the State of 
Texas would receive one visit from a state supervisor 
of rural schools! 

The absurdity and futility of the State Department 
of Education assuming to supervise the schools of the 
state is apparent on the face of it. 

There is another inconsistency in the effort of the 



110 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

state to supervise and manage the public schools. 
There are over a million children enrolled in the 
elementary schools of Texas, and one chief supervisor, 
and nine supervisors are employed to supervise the 
teachers who teach these million children scattered over 
265,895 square miles of territory! There were but one 
hundred twelve thousand pupils enrolled in the high 
schools of the State, yet it required one chief supervisor 
and seven supervisors of high schools according to the 
Bulletin to supervise the work of the teachers of the 
high schools! 

It must be that the elementary school teachers were 
specially well qualified and self reliant, or that there 
must have been some doubt in the State Department of 
Education as to the capability of the high school teach- 
ers, and of the high school principals and the city 
superintendents to manage and supervise their own 
high school organizations. 

The people of Texas are a keen, clever, proud, liberty 
loving people. How can they be induced to swallow 
such pretentions to State supervision of their public 
schools? They may be depended upon to see the 
humor of the situation. 

The duty and responsibility for the supervision of 
the rural schools should be placed where it rightfully 
belongs, upon the shoulders of the one hundred seventy 
four county superintendents of schools in the state of 
Texas. The county superintendent of schools is the 
school official who should be entrusted with the respon- 
sibility of looking after the school affairs of the county. 
He should visit and supervise the rural and village 
schools, or that duty should be performed under his 
direction by assistants chosen by him ! 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 111 

In the larger towns and cities where a superintend- 
ent is employed, the superintendent should be the 
oflBcial supervisor. 

As an illustration, take the city of Palestine as an 
example. The people of that little city have built up 
a fairly representative local system of schools. They 
have taxed themselves to build, furnish and equip their 
school buildings. They support both elementary 
schools and a high school. The legal voters elect their 
members of a Board of Education to look after their 
school affairs. The Board of Education levies taxes 
for the support of the schools, and employs a superin- 
tendent, principals, and a corps of teachers. It employs 
a high school principal and a corps of high school 
teachers. The high school principal is responsible for 
the organization and management of the high school. 
The superintendent of schools exercises general super- 
vision over the high school as he does over the grade 
schools. He is the executive of the Board of Education 
and its official adviser. 

Under these conditions, what possible function is 
there for a high school supervisor to perform.'* What 
qualifications have these supervisors of high schools 
for judging the quality of the instruction, the equip- 
ment, discipline and the other school activities of the 
high school, that the principal of the school and the 
city superintendent do not possess .f* 

It is not that the occasional visits of these state 
supervisors are necessarily objectionable, on the 
contrary they may be most welcome for teachers and 
principals enjoy the visits of most any agreeable person 
who is familiar with what is being done in other schools 
in other places, but the criticism is that the position is 
unnecessary. The mere fact that there are state high 



112 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

school supervisors indicates that the state intends 
to control, and supervise the high schools. 

As in some of the other states, the fact that the 
state appropriates a sum of money in aid of public 
school education, is seized upon by the politicians as a 
pretext for state domination and control of the public 
schools through the state political machinery. The 
voters should keep the truth clearly in mind that the 
state does not spend a dollar in aid of public school 
education that it has not previously taken from the 
people for that purpose, and it is quite likely that the 
state collects a dollar and a quarter for every dollar it 
returns to the schools! 

The schools are local institutions of the people, and 
the people should insist upon their inherent right to 
local self-government in their schools without inter- 
ference, supervision, or dictation from the State 
Department of Education. 

The four million dollar school book deal ought to 
open the eyes of the people of the State of Texas to the 
danger of state political management of school funds. 
But more on that subject later on ! 

CALIFORNIA STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION 

The State of California is encumbered with a State 
Board of Education of seven members, appointed by 
the Governor for four year terms each; "no salaried 
educational officer may be appointed," this insures a 
board of lay members responsible to the Governor. 

This State Board of Education, "Adopts rules for 
the government of day and evening elementary schools, 
day and evening secondary (high schools), technical 
and vocational schools. Normal schools, and all other 
schools, except the State University, receiving financial 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 113 

aid from the State; appoints 3 assistant State Superin- 
tendents; makes plans for the improvement of the 
administration and efficiency of the schools; makes 
recommendations concerning changes in school legis- 
lation" (presumably for increasing its grip upon public 
school affairs) ; "compiles and adopts uniform textbooks 
for elementary schools which are printed by the State 
and distributed free; grants credentials for teachers; 
accredits Normal Schools and Universities for certifica- 
tion purposes; administers Vocational Education; 
enforces provisions for establishment of courses in 
physical education and appoints supervisor; adopts 
minimum requirements for graduation from State 
Normal Schools ; prescribes list of textbooks from which 
local high schools must select, etc." Thus it will be 
seen that no powers that could be thought of would 
seem to have been overlooked by the Centralization 
forces in the State of California. 

One is reminded of Gluyas Williams' humorous 
description of the inside workings of the committee of 
the United States Senate on the Tariff Bill as published 
in Life, in which Senator Sounder is made to say: — 

"As a member of the Committee, I can truthfully 
say that we were absolutely tireless in thinking up 
things to protect. We even offered a prize of five dol- 
lars to the man who could give the longest list of names 
at meeting, I am sorry to say that this gave rise to 
certain questionable practices. After Senator Smoot 
had won the prize six times running, we found that he 
had been cribbing from a Sears Roebuck catalogue held 
under the table. And certain others tried to fatten 
their records by handing in names they had made up." 

The State Superintendent of Public Instruction, a 
Constitutional State executive official, elected by the 



114 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

people, is made by State law, subservient to the State 
Board of Education appointed by the Governor, 
another State Executive official! 

"The superintendent of public instruction shall be 
the secretary and shall act as executive officer of the 
board; he shall have charge of all its correspondence 
and shall keep a record of its proceedings. (A sort of 
chief clerk.) It shall be the duty of the state board of 
education to determine all questions of policy; it shall 
be the duty of the superintendent of public instruction 
to execute, under the direction of the board, the policies 
which have been decided upon, and to direct, under 
such general rules and regulations as the state board of 
education may adopt, the work of all assistant superin- 
tendents of public instruction, and such other appointees 
and employees of the board as may be provided by law." 
— School Law of California, 1921. 

Just think what this means. The State Superintend- 
ent of Public Instruction, (by the last session of the 
Legislature was made ex officio Director of Education), 
a constitutional, executive, administrative official of 
the state government as much so as the Governor, 
Secretary of State, Attorney General, or any other 
state official provided for by the state constitution, 
and chosen and elected by the legal voters of the 
state, has been shorn of all initiative and the right- 
ful prerogatives of his office, even to the choice of 
his assistants and the employees of his office, and the 
assignment of their respective duties ! 

The governor appoints seven members of a State 
Board of Education and this body, the governor's body, 
shall "determine all questions of policy"; and "it shall 
be the duty of the superintendent of public instruction 
(the people's elective constitutional official) to execute. 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 115 

under the direction of the board (the governor's board), 
the poh'cies which have been decided upon," etc. 

As we have pointed out before, this usurpation of 
the authority to "determine all questions of policy" 
pertaining to public education is going on all over the 
country. The propaganda originated with the "pro- 
fessional educators," the Teachers' Colleges, Schools 
of Education of the great Universities, and the Educa- 
tional foundations; and the movement is favored by 
the professional politicians on account of the political 
power and patronage it places in the hands of the 
political organization. The amount of money collected 
and spent each year for public schools is greater than 
for any one one public purpose. 

The right and privilege "to determine all questions 
of policy" in the disbursement of the state educational 
funds, and the dispensing of the immense patronage 
that goes with it, explains the eagerness of the political 
"Powers that be" to centralize, crystalize, and fossilize 
all domination and control of public schools in an 
appointive board responsible to the governor. 

The educational institutions, before mentioned 
naturally favor centralization of domination and con- 
trol for the reason that it makes it easier for them to 
exert their influence through highly centralized bodies 
clothed with "power to act!" 

One of these high professional institutions makes a 
specialty of placing its students and graduates in com- 
manding positions of influence. So successful has this 
institution been in this practical phase of its work, 
that it has succeeded in spreading the thought over the 
country that for one to hope to reach a prominent 
position in school work, or recognition in the Depart- 
ment of Superintendence of the National Education 



116 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

Association it is necessary to spend at least a summer 
term at that influential institution, and thereby to 
"get in touch" with the "fellows who do things" 
educationally. Ambitious school men and women and 
those who have "lost out" hie themselves to this 
particular institution and thereby gain the open sesame 
to a commanding position, and to fellowship in this 
educational guild. 

The whole educational trend is to remove the right 
to control and manage the public schools as far from 
the people as practicable, and it is interesting, though 
pathetic, to hear the specious arguments and political 
slogans used to induce the voters to yield up their 
birthright to manage, direct, and control their schools 
for the education of their own children. 

One of these pretexts is that as the public schools, 
"Receiving financial aid from the State" must there- 
fore be governed, supervised, inspected, approved, 
controlled, and "efficiently administered" by the 
governor through his appointees. 

Another pretext advanced by these educational 
"Imperiahsts" in favor of having the members of the 
State Board of Education, and in some states the 
State Superintendent of Public Instruction as well, 
appointed by the governor, is to "Keep the manage- 
ment and control of the schools out of politics." Ye 
gods and little fishes! 

The stock argument of the educational experts is 
that the people of the local school districts may not be 
trusted to manage and direct their school affairs. That 
a State Board of Education made up of men and 
women "of large vision," selected by the governor 
"because of their fitness for the position rather than 
their fitness for some other" is more likely to know what 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 117 

is best for the children of a local community than the 
parents of the children and their teachers. 

There could not be a greater economic fallacy than 
that because the State levies a tax upon all the property 
of the State and apportions the proceeds of that tax 
to the school districts of the State for the partial 
support of the public school or schools of that district, 
that therefore the Governor of the State, the State 
Board of Education, or the State Department of Edu- 
cation should take over the administration of those 
schools! The State as a sovereign entity apart from 
the people of the state does not contribute a penny to 
the support of the public schools of the school districts 
of the state. The school districts of the state pay 
into the State treasury all the money that is collected 
from property taxes; a great many districts pay in more 
than they received in return from the apportionment, 
and some, of course, receive more than they paid in. 

The latest available statistics, for the school year 
1917-18, shows that the State of California appro- 
priated 22.3%, and the County and Local School 
Districts the balance, 77.7%! 

The averages for the United States for the same 
year were, — from permanent funds and lands, 2.9%; 
State taxes, 13.7%; local school district taxes, 78.8%; 
and all other sources, 4.6%. 

From these exhibits, it would not appear that 
either the States, or the Federal Government may 
justify taking over the management of the public 
schools on the pretext of financial support. 

The voters of California at the general election on 
November 2, 1920, adopted an Amendment to the 
State Constitution that should prove to be a wise and 
beneficent move toward the solution of the difficult 



118 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

problem of providing adequate revenues for the support 
of efficient schools in all the school districts of the 
state, and at the same time guaranteeing those teach- 
ers in the sparsely settled rural districts fairly adequate 
salaries. 

The Amendment provides : 

First, that the State shall provide each year "an 
amount not less than thirty dollars per pupil in average 
attendance in the day and evening elementary schools 
in the public school system during the next preceding 
year." 

Second, that it, "shall provide an amount not less 
than thirty dollars per pupil in average attendance in 

the day and evening secondary and technical schools 

* * * " 

Third, that the board of supervisors of each county, 
and city and county shall levy a tax for the support of 
the public day and evening elementary schools of the 
county, or city and county of "not less than thirty 
dollars per pupil * * * ." 

Fourth, that the board of supervisors of each county, 
and city and county shall levy a tax "sufficient in 
amount to produce a sum of money not less than twice 
the amount of money to be received during the current 
school year from the state for the support of the public 
day and evening secondary and technical schools of 
the county, or city and county; provided, that the high 
school tax levied * * * shall produce not less than 
sixty dollars per pupil in average daily attendance. 

* * * s> 

Fifth, "The legislature shall provide for the levy- 
ing of school district taxes * * * for the support of 
public elementary' schools, secondary schools, technical 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 119 

schools, and kindergarten schools, or for any public 
school purpose authorized by the legislature." 

Sixth, "The entire amount of money provided by 
the state, and not less than sixty percent of the amount 
of money provided by county, or city and county, 
school taxes shall be applied exclusively to the payment 
of public school teachers' salaries." 

The apportionment of school funds is provided for 
by law. The money for the elementary schools is 
apportioned, (1) on the number of teachers to which a 
school district is entitled, based upon, "one teacher for 
the first thirty-five or a less number of pupils in average 
daily attendance and one additional teacher for each 
additional thirty-five pupils or fraction of thirty-five 
in average attendance, in the district, and one addi- 
tional teacher for each three hundred pupils in average 
daily attendance in the district * * * ; and in each 
school district wherein a separate class is established 
for the instruction of the deaf, or the blind, or crippled 
children, * * * , an additional teacher for each nine 
deaf, or blind, or crippled children, or fraction of such 
number not less than five * * * ; and in addition to 
the teachers herein before provided * * * , * * * 
one additional teacher for the county or city and 
county for each five hundred pupils or major fraction 
thereof in average attendance in the aggregate in those 
school districts * * *, in each one of which there were 
less than three hundred pupils in average attend- 
ance * * * ." 

"One thousand four hundred dollars shall be appor- 
tioned to each school district for each and every teacher 
allowed it; provided, that one thousand four hundred 
dollars shall be apportioned to each county or city 
and county for each teacher allowed on the aggregate 



120 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

average daily attendance * * * in * * * school dis- 
tricts, each of which had less than three hundred pupils 
in average daily attendance * * * and the funds so 
apportioned shall constitute an emergency and super- 
vision fund under the control of the superintendent of 
schools of the county or city and county." 

"All school moneys remaining on hand after appor- 
tioning school moneys as provided * * * , must be 
apportioned to the several districts in proportion to the 
number of pupils in average attendance * * * ." 

This is a progressive and sincere attempt to equalize 
educational opportunity for all the children of the state 
of California whether they live in the cities, towns, 
villages, or the rural districts. It is encouraging to 
know that the most remote, sparsely settled mountain 
school district receives the same amount from the state 
and county school funds to pay its teacher that the city 
school district gets for each of its teachers ! 

The other states might do well to follow the exam- 
ple of California in her liberal plan of raising the 
necessary funds, and in so apportioning those funds as 
to assure well paid teachers and good school advantages 
to all the children of the state. 

The potent factor is that every teacher knows that 
there has been fourteen hundred dollars appropriated 
to pay her as salary for teaching school, and the school 
trustees or school boards can not very well fritter it 
away on phonograph deals, limousines, sponges, trick 
clocks, etc. 

But this bit of beneficent school legislation must not 
be permitted to dazzle the clear vision of the citizens of 
California and to hide the fundamental fact that in so 
far as the Governor of the State through his State 
Board of Education is given authority to do the things 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 121 

enumerated in the School Law of California 1921, 
except to compile and adopt uniform textbooks, is a 
direct infringement upon the rightful prerogatives of 
the State Superintendent of Public Instruction who is 
"elected by the qualified electors of the state." 

It is evident that the framers of the State Constitu- 
tion did not intend that the State Board of Education 
should, "Adopts rules for the government of day and 
evening schools, day and evening secondary schools, 
technical and vocational schools. Normal schools, and 
all other schools, except the State University, (Why 
except it?), receiving financial aid from the State"; and 
all the other numerous and officious duties and respon- 
sibilities enumerated. 

The title of Sec. 7 of the State Constitution of 
California is, "State Board of Education — Textbooks — 
County boards of Education." The section itself 
devotes sixteen and a half lines to the duties of the state 
board of education, fifteen of these are devoted to its 
duty to, "provide, compile, or cause to be compiled, 
and adopt, a uniform series of textbooks" etc., and on 
the tail end of the last sentence, "and said board shall 
perform such other duties as may be prescribed by law." 
And this is the gossamer constitutional foundation upon 
which the political organization has builded its powerful 
political-educational domination of public school affairs, 
and this in the face of the official ruling of the Attorney- 
general's office, "That all the functions of the State 
educational system devolved upon the superintendent 
of public instruction, as the educational representative 
of the people" ! ! 

The lawmakers of the last session of the legislature 
seem to have felt that there might be some basis for 
the Attorney-general's legal opinion for a new school 



122 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

law was enacted, (Approved June 1, 1921) creating^ 
"A department of the government of the State of 
Cah'fornia to be known as the department of educa- 
tion." "The department shall be conducted under the 
control of an executive officer to be known as the 
director of education, which office is hereby created. 
The state superintendent of public instruction shall be 
ex officio director of education." 

"The work of the department is hereby divided into 
at least two divisions to be known as : 

"1. Division of textbooks, (In California Textbooks 
is the first subject mentioned among educational sub- 
jects) certification and trust funds, to be in charge of the 
state board of education, which board is hereby con- 
tinued in force with all the powers and functions hereto- 
fore conferred upon it by law and the members thereof 
shall receive the compensation now allowed by law. In 
addition, said board is hereby vested with certain pow- 
ers and functions, * * * , in respect to the conduct of 
normal school or teachers' colleges and special schools." 

"2. Division of normal and special schools, to per- 
form the functions heretofore conferred by law upon 
boards of trustees of the several state nonnal schools 
or teachers' colleges, the California Polytechnic School 
and the California School for the Deaf and the Blind, 
to be in charge of the director of education for the pur- 
poses of administration; provided, however, that the 
principal or president of the faculty of each such 
school ("The other members of the teaching staff of 
each such school and all officers and employees thereof") 
shall be appointed by the director of education subject 
to the approval of the state hoard of education * * * ." 
(Italics ours.) 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 123 

This looks like a cleverly conceived sclieme pre- 
tending to enlarge the functions of the state superin- 
tendent of public instruction by giving him a high 
sounding title with some duties and functions to per- 
form that do not properly belong to his office, and at 
the same time continuing to deprive hmi of the powers 
and duties that do belong to his official position. 

The State Teachers' Colleges, the California Poly- 
technic School, the California School for the Deaf and 
the Blind, and the State University as well should be 
placed under the control of one State Board of Trustees 
either "elected by the qualified electors of the state," 
or appointed by the State Superintendent of Public 
Instruction and confirmed by the State Senate. 

It is proper and right for the state schools to be 
under the management and control of a state board or 
boards. These schools are in their very nature state 
schools, they draw their students from all parts of the 
state, they are supported by the people of the state, 
and being educational institutions, they should be under 
the general control of the State Department of Educa- 
tion. 

The State Department of Education should be as 
free from the dictation of the Governor as the Depart- 
ment of State, the Department of Justice and the State 
Treasury. 

The State Superintendent of Public Instruction of 
California remains shorn of the rightful authority 
and prerogative of his oflfice. He must work under 
the direction and domination of the Governor's state 
board of education. 

The political situation in California is fairly typical 
of what the educational politicians have, or are en- 
deavoring to have brought about. 



124 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

An amendment to the Constitution of the State of 
Indiana making the State Superintendent of Public 
Instruction an appointee of the State Board of Educa- 
tion instead of being elected by the people, was sub- 
mitted to the voters of that state at the last election. 
It was defeated. All Hail to the voters of Indiana! 

It is a fundamental principle that all public school 
officials, school district, county, and state should be 
elected by the people. While these officials are, 
"elected by the qualified electors of the state," many of 
their powers and duties are taken from them and given 
to the Governor's appointive State Board of Educa- 
tion. The designs of such encroachment upon the 
rights and responsibilities of the peoples representatives 
in all school affairs, are apparent. 

The one absorbing educational question in California 
politically ever since the "sand lot politics" agitations 
of the early '80 's has been the schoolbook question. 
Political parties, and candidates for office as well as 
official appointees have, " * * * rolled under the 
tongue as a sweet morsel" the political slogan of, 
"State Compulsory Uniformity of Schoolbooks, Com- 
piled and Printed by the State, and Furnished to the 
People at Cost," (And at what a fearful cost!) until it 
had become worn smooth and threadbare as a vote 
catching device. 

In 1910-1912, an amendment to the State Consti- 
tution was proposed, submitted and adopted which 
provides for a State uniform series of schoolbooks to 
be compiled, printed and published, furnished and 
distributed by the Stale free of cost or any charge what- 
ever to all the children attending the elementary public 
schools ! The next advanced step will most likely be to 
submit an Amendment to the Constitution providing 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 125 

for the designing, manufacture, and distribution of a 
State Uniform Series of schoolshoes free of cost or any 
charge whatever to all the children attending the public 
schools. It should prove to be a vote getter! 

Now the Governor's State Board of Education, in 
addition to its other numerous and extraneous duties 
and obligations, "Compiles and adopts uniform text- 
books for elementary schools which are printed by 
the State and distributed free; and prescribes a list 
of textbooks from which local high schools must select 
their books! 

This question of the blighting influence of com- 
pulsory uniform schoolbooks is discussed in another 
place. Reasons are given as to why a certain class of 
politicians are so active in their efforts to bring about 
compulsory uniformity of schoolbooks. The States of 
California and Kansas have gone the other compulsory 
uniformity schoolbook states "one better" in that those 
states print and furnish the school books at cost. 

But California and Texas provide the compulsory 
uniform schoolbooks and furnish and distribute them 
to all the school children free of all cost ! 

This is the apotheosis of demagogism! 

Whatever specious arguments and excuses may be 
offered as pretexts for compulsory state uniformity of 
textbooks vanish into thin air as soon as free textbooks 
are furnished. 

If the Governor's State Board of Education has the 
authority to compile and adopt a compulsory uniform 
series of schoolbooks and to compel their exclusive 
use by all the children in all the public schools of 
California, it has the legal authority to modify the 
contents of those books and to insert any peculiar ideas 
or sentiments that the Governor or the members of his 



126 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

Board of Education might wish to inculcate in the 
minds of the children attending the public schools of 
California. 

It is generally understood that the educational 
affairs of California are dominated by a little coterie of 
the "elect," partly educational, but mainly political, 
with the school book fetish as the loadstone that draws 
and holds it together. 

One wonders after reading the School Law of 
California whether the compulsory use of the State 
school books was not considered as the chief purpose 
of the public schools of that state. It is given more 
space and emphasis than elementary schools, high 
schools, school teachers, school buildings or school 
children ! 

Even the Constitution of the State, — Article IX, 
Section 7, gives less than two lines to the provision 
for the State Board of Education, and fifteen lines to a 
uniform series of school books; and Sec. 5, devotes 
only four lines providing for "a system of common 
schools!" 

The school law provides that, — "When a book has 
been adopted, the state board of education shall 
enforce the uniform use of such book." 

"Any teacher, or city, county, city and county 
superintendent of schools, or any board of education, 
refusing or neglecting to use said series of state text- 
books * * * shall be guilty of a misdemeanor * * * and 
shall be subject to a fine not exceeding one hundred 
dollars for each offense." 

"If any city or district refuse or neglect to use the 
books that may be prescribed, or use any other text- 
book in any of the prescribed studies the superintendent 
of public instruction must withhold from such city, 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 127 

town or district twenty-five per cent of all school 
moneys to which it may be entitled until it comply * * ." 

"The commissioner of elementary schools shall 
visit the elementary day and evening schools of the 
several counties of the State (some six thousand five 
hundred of them) and investigate the course of study 
adopted in the schools. He shall enforce the use of the 
State textbooks." 

"The commissioner of secondary schools shall 
visit and investigate the secondary schools of the several 
counties of the state. He may recommend changes 
in the course of study (discretionary) and shall investi- 
gate all contracts with textbook companies and see that 
they comply with the law." (mandatory.) 

The state superintendent of public instruction 
must serve as order clerk for the State Board of Edu- 
cation's school book business! 

Section 1534 of the Political Code which defines 
his duties as the responsible distributor of the com- 
pulsory uniform state series of textbooks is longer and 
much more explicit than any other of his seventeen 
duties pertaining to a system of public schools, and it 
seems to have been regarded by the law makers, or 
their advisers, as his chief official duty. 

"Boards of Education in cities. Powers and duties. 
To enforce in the schools the course of study and the 
textbooks prescribed and adopted by the proper 
authority." 

"County Boards of Education. Powers and duties. 
Enforce in the public schools a course of study and the 
use of a uniform series of textbooks." 

"High School Boards of Education shall adopt 
textbooks from a list prepared by the State Board of 
Education." 



128 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

"State Board of Education. Powers and duties. 
The compiling and publishing of a list of textbooks for 
the use by the students of the several normal schools 
of the state ; provided, that the state series of textbooks 
shall be used * * *, and that all other regular textbooks 
shall be selected by the various normal school authori- 
ties from said list." 

"Normal schools or Teachers Colleges." There 
seems to be some uncertainty as to whether the normal 
schools or teachers colleges shall be under the control of 
boards of trustees or the state department of education, 
the Governor having signed two bills, one, providing 
for a board of trustees, and the other for the super- 
vision and management by the newly (?) created 
department of education. 

But so far as textbooks to be used it makes no 
material difference, for the governing body of the state 
schools for the training of teachers in the public schools 
of California does not have authority to choose a 
textbook for use in those schools except from a list 
framed up by the governor's state board of education ! ! 

Even the future teachers in the public schools of 
California must be limited and restricted in their 
academic trainmg to the meagre treatment of subject 
matter contamed in the state series of uniform text- 
books or some one of the books on each subject pre- 
scribed by the state board of education ! 

Why this insatiable desire to have all the subject 
matter to be contained in school books to be used for 
the instruction of the children in the elementary and 
rural schools, the students in the high schools, and the 
student teachers in the normal schools filtered through 
the political hopper of the Governor's State Board of 
Education .f* Politics! 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 129 

Another Section, 1527, of the school laws shows how 
the politicians have used the public schools for vote 
catching slogans: "It shall he the duty of any board of 
education, school board, board of trustees, official, 
officer or any other person, elected or appointed to 
carry out the provisions of the laws of the state of 
California relating to the public schools of said state and 
vested with the power of designating textbooks to be 
used in the said public schools, in so designating such 
textbooks, unless otherwise provided by general law, 
to give preference to any textbook on any given subject 
of public instruction which is entirely written, compiled, 
printed and published in the state of California, to the 
exclusion of any such textbook entirely or partly written, 
compiled, printed and published outside the state of 
California." 

The whole educational system of California, as 
it seems, is based, in so far as the State's part in it is 
concerned, on the political principle that the public 
schools afford a rich harvest of political patronage; and 
that is stating it conservatively. 

It is clearly apparent that all of these obnoxious 
mandatory limitations and restrictions were dictated by 
designing self interests from motives other than those 
advanced for vote catching purposes, — and that 
to accomplish their designs and purposes they dis- 
regarded all educational considerations of the children 
of the state for whose education and training schools 
are established and supported. 

The wonder is that the intelligent and progressive 
people of California could be deceived by such designing 
sophistry. 

It had not been our intention to mention the text- 
book question in connection with the Centralization of 



1.30 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

domination and control of the public schools of Cali- 
fornia in the Governor's appointive State Board of 
Education, but as the whole educational fabric of 
the State educational system is so inextricably enmeshed 
with the compulsory uniformity, state printing, free 
of all cost, textbook question, the two topics could not 
be separated. 

We shall now return to the practical workings of the 
state management and control of the public schools. 

The Hst of "Members of Staffs of State Depart- 
ments of Education and Salaries Paid Each," credits 
California's State Department with a total salary list 
amounting to eighty-nine thousand seven hundred 
eighty (89,780) dollars, and a staff numbering forty- 
five people. 

In addition to this the expenditures of the state 
board of education amounted to fifty-seven thousand 
five hundred seventy-six (57,576) dollars, of which 
amount fifty-one thousand six hundred fifty-five 
(51,655) dollars went for salaries of appomtees and em- 
ployees of the State Board of Education and for paying 
the traveling expenses and the jper diem of the members 
of the State Board of Education. This swells the grand 
total expenditures of the State Department of Edu- 
cation to something like one hundred forty thousand 
(140,000) dollars. This amount might easily be reduced 
at least one half. The salary of the State Superin- 
tendent should be increased to at least $7,500; he 
should be allowed at least three deputies of his own 
choosing whose services should be worth $4,000 a 
year each, and his office should be reorganized into a 
State Department of Education in fact. 

The futility of the State Department of Education 
and the State Board of Education attempting to 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 131 

supervise and direct the elementary schools and the 
high schools, and such special subjects as physical 
training, Americanization, must be apparent to any 
one who has given it a passing thought. 

There were enrolled in the elementary and high 
schools of California in 1918-19, 602,758 pupils. Of 
these 347,443 pupils were enrolled in the city schools 
already provided with adequate supervision and con- 
trol. The remaining 255,315 pupils were enrolled 
in the rural and village schools scattered over 158,397 
square miles of territory. 

This vast state is a little larger than Massachusetts, 
Rhode Island, Connecticut, the South one-half of New 
York, New Jersey, the East one-half of Pennsylvania, 
Delaware, the East one-half of the States of Virginia 
and North Carolina, and the whole of South Carolina 
combined ! 

For the State commissioners and supervisors to visit 
and supervise these scattered rural and village schools 
would oblige them to travel distances practically the 
same as the distances from Boston via New York, 
Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington, Richmond, and 
Raleigh to Charleston, South Carolina; and East and 
West from Washington, D. C. to Indianapolis! 

There are probably more than 6,555 rural and village 
schools in California. No school official except the 
county superintendents of the fifty-eight counties would 
be able to locate many of the schools or to find them. 
Yet the teachers in these rural and village schools are 
the ones most in need of supervision. 

The State Board of Education appoints and directs 
one supervisor and three assistant supervisors of physical 
education. Leaving out of consideration the city schools 
which are most likely provided with supervisors of 



132 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

physical training, and dividing the 6,555 village and 
rural schools among the four State supervisors of phys- 
ical education, each one would have something like 1640 
schools to visit and supervise in 173 days the schools 
are in session. Over nine widely scattered schools a day ! 

State inspection, supervision, regulation and con- 
trol of public elementary and high schools is a farce 
even under the most favorable conditions, where the 
territory is compact, the means of transportation good, 
and the supervisory force ample, for the reason that 
it is unnecessary, and does not rightfully belong to the 
"Sphere of Influence" of the State Department of 
Education. 

California has fine public schools, and her citizens 
are justly proud of their local schools. 

The political schemers take advantage of this local 
public spirit and make their appeals to the voters on 
the plea of strengthening the organization of our 
public schools by voting more power and authority to 
the State Board of Education ! 

The public schools of California are as good as they 
are because of the enlightened public sentiment of the 
local communities. 

The many beautiful and artistic school buildings 
attest the local educational sentiment and liberality of 
the people. The rural and village schools are the 
result of the combined efforts of the local communities 
and their local school officers and teachers. 

California has good schools in spite of State political 
interference domination and control, and of her perni- 
cious textbook legislation. 

The people of California will have to give more 
thought and attention to public school politics, and 
especially to school legislation. 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 133 

The people of the local school districts and the 
counties should give their representatives in the state 
legislature no rest nor political peace of mind until the 
right of the people to direct, manage and control their 
public schools is restored to them. 

The hardest fight will be to break the hold of the 
strongly entrenched State school book political ring. 
It will mean the repeal of Section 7 of the State Con- 
stitution. 

The repeal of this section would not only free the 
schools of the blighting mfluences of the compulsory 
uniform textbooks printed, furnished and distributed 
free of cost, and the political pap that goes with them, 
but with the same stroke the props would be knocked 
from under the Governor's State Board of Education! 

A State Board of Education should be created to 
take its place to have general direction and control of 
the strictly State educational institutions; but this 
State Board of Education should be given no authority 
over the State Department of Education, nor over the 
public elementary and high schools of the state. 

The authority of the local school boards should be 
ample under the necessary restrictions of school laws. 

It is fundamentally important for the safety and 
progress of the public schools that the local school 
districts shall be permitted to manage their own school 
affairs. The authority to organize, manage and to sup- 
port their schools must be granted by the state, but 
people of all the school districts of the State are the 
State. 

Unless the fight is made and the victory won, it 
will not take many years for the public schools of 
California to become as hide bound and institution- 
alized as those of New York and Massachusetts. 



134 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

The writer disclaims any criticism of individual 
members of the State Board of Education. Without 
doubt they are all worthy individuals interested and 
untiring in their efforts to serve the State. Nor does 
he wish to be understood as intimating that the State 
Board of Education arrogates to itself power and 
authority not in conformity with law. Our criticism is 
based upon the principle that the authority granted by 
law to the State Board of Education is an infringe- 
ment upon the inherent rights of the people and their 
duly elected representatives, the local school trustees, 
the city boards of education, the county superin- 
tendents, and the State Superintendent of Public 
Instruction. 



CHAPTER IV 

Political Domination in City School 
Systems 

The domination and control of public school affairs 
by political, bureaucratic influences are even more 
vicious in many of our cities than in most of the states. 

The tendency in the States, as has been pointed out, 
is to place the domination and control of the public 
schools in the hands of the Governor; the tendency in 
the cities is to place the domination and control in the 
hands of the mayor. 

In New York City and in Chicago, the mayor 
appoints the members of the Board of Education. This 
is true in a number of other cities. There is a dispo- 
sition to remove the responsibility for the management 
and control of the public schools as far from the fathers 
and mothers of the children as possible. The people 
of these two cities have no voice in the selection of the 
members of the Board of Education. The members of 
the Boards of Education appointed by the mayor 
are responsible to hun and the political machine back of 
him. In New York City the power behind the throne is 
understood to be that altruistic and benevolent associ- 
ation, Tammany Hall; and in Chicago the so-called 
Thompson-Lundin political organization. 

The political conditions would in all probability 
be just as bad in either city under any mayor likely to be 
elected to that oflSce. 

It is beyond belief that the people would elect 
members of the Board of Education less competent 

135 



136 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

and less interested in education than the average of the 
appointments by a mayor of a city. 

If the citizens of New York, Chicago, and any other 
city cannot be trusted with the responsibihty of electing 
the members of their school boards, it might as well 
be frankly admitted that our boasted republican form 
of government is a failure. 

The worst Board of Education that could be elected 
by popular vote of the people, although nominated by a 
partisan primary and elected on a partisan ticket, will 
be a better Board of Education than one appointed by 
any mayor that is likely to be elected in any of these 
cities ! 

There is no doubt that those cities have better 
average Boards of Education where they have compara- 
tively small boards elected at large by popular vote. 

But leaving out of consideration the question of 
the fitness of mayor's appointees on Boards of Educa- 
tion, the fundamental fact remains that if there is one 
department of our popular free government to which 
the people should be accorded the right to elect their 
oflScials, and to detennine their policies, that depart- 
ment is their public schools. If the people of a local 
school district cannot be trusted to manage their 
public school affairs there certainly are no other depart- 
ments of our government that should be intrusted to 
them. There is no other one department of government 
in which every citizen should be more vitally and per- 
sonally interested than in the public schools. 

The usual argument advanced by the educational 
bureaucrats who favor the appointment of members 
of school boards by the governor or the mayor, is that 
in many school districts there is a large majority of 



POLITICAL DOMINATION IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 137 

foreigners who are not in sympathy with the pubHc 
schools, and in many instances openly hostile to them. 

An answer to that argument is that if the naturali- 
zation laws have admitted those people to citizenship, 
they are just as competent to choose wisely members of 
the Board of Education as they are to choose their 
alderman, mayor, sheriff, members of the State Legisla- 
ture, judges, and Governor! 

There is no doubt but that there are wide differences 
to be found in the public school sentiment in different 
communities, and likewise in political and civic ideals. 
These differences are reflected in the types of men 
elected to represent the different wards in a city, and 
members of the legislature from the different legis- 
lative districts of a state. But that is just what a 
representative republican fonn of government means, 
and it is right and proper that the representives chosen 
shall represent the political ideals of the people who 
elect them. The important point is, that the right and 
responsibility of making the public schools efficient for 
the training of their children, rests upon the shoulders 
of the citizens. In those backward communities where 
the civic and educational ideals are low, public senti- 
ment will have to be built up before there can be sub- 
stantial improvement in the schools. 

Therein lies one of the principal functions of the 
County Superintendent of Schools and the State 
Department of Education. The citizens of those back- 
ward communities should be instructed, encouraged 
and helped to help themselves to support better schools 
and to demand as good schools for their children as the 
children of the more favored communities. 

The tendency toward bureaucratic and autocratic 
management of the public schools in the cities following 



138 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

the tendencies of the states as we have pointed out, 
is even more marked than in the states. 

In whatever manner the members of school boards 
may be chosen the tendency is to build up a bureau- 
cratic system with an autocratic superintendent at its 
head. School Boards seem to lose sight of the fact that 
they are representing the people, and that the superin- 
tendent of schools is a public servant of the people of 
the school district. As that popular writer, publicist 
and historian, Mr. H. G. Wells, so tersely expresses it, — 
"But it is the universal weakness of mankind that what 
we are given to administer we presently imagine we 
own." 

Too many members of school boards forget that 
they are appointed, or elected to administer school 
affairs in the interest of the taxpayers and school patrons. 
They are apt to assume in the expenditure of public school 
funds, the election of teachers, principals, superin- 
tendents and other school officials and employees, that 
they are dispensing personal patronage. That the 
recipient of these favors should be under personal 
obligation to the members of the board for his appoint- 
ment, award of contract, purchase of supplies, etc. Too 
frequently school board members display unbecoming 
zeal in seeking promising opportunities for expending 
public school funds, and in making plausible pretexts 
for voting for these expenditures. 

It is pretty generally understood that even well 
intentioned and personally honest men are apt to be 
much more reckless in the expenditure of public funds 
than they are m the expenditure of their private 
business funds. Is it to be wondered at that men and 
women who have never had the opportunity of spend- 
ing little more than enough to meet their current 



POLITICAL DOMINATION IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 139 

expenses, sometimes become profligate in the expendi- 
ture of millions of public funds when through political 
favor they are given authority and discretion in the 
expenditure of, what must seem to them, inexhaustible 
sums of money ! 

There is also the temptation to seek personal and 
political popularity by providing profitable employment 
for political and personal friends at public expense. 
This in large measure accounts for the excessively large 
numbers of employees in the various departments. 

It may prove both interesting and instructive to 
look into this subject of the tendency and the temp- 
tation of city school boards to grow extravagant and 
wasteful in the expenditure of school funds. 

EXTRAVAGANT DISSIPATION OF SCHOOL FUNDS 

There are six general headings under which the 
current running expenses are tabulated in the reports 
to the National Bureau of Education, namely, — 

(1) General Control, this item is sub-divided into 
Business Administration, and Educational Adminis- 
tration, 

(2) Expenses of Instruction, divided into Salaries 
and expenses of supervisors. Salaries and expenses of 
principals, Salaries of teachers. Textbooks, Stationery, 
supplies, and other expenses of instruction and night 
schools; 

(3) Expenses of operation of school plant, this 
item is subdivided into, wages of janitors and other 
employees, fuel, water, light, power, janitors' supplies, etc. 

(4) Maintenance of plant, including repairs, re- 
placements of equipment, etc; 

(5) Expenses of auxiliary agencies, such as com- 
munity centers, bathhouses, lunch rooms, free lectures, 



140 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

play grounds, school gardens, Americanization classes, 
etc; and 

(6) Fixed charges, such as rents, taxes, pension 
allowances, etc. 

It will be seen that the item, Current expenses, 
does not include Capital outlay — the purchase of school 
sites, the construction of new buildings, permanent 
improvements and additions to old buildings, nor 
interest for borrowed money. 

It is self-evident that that system of schools which 
spends the highest rate percent of the total expenditures 
for Expenses of Instruction reflects the highest effi- 
ciency in management. For the object of the public 
schools, and all other schools for that matter, is to 
provide instruction; all the other items of outlay are 
subordinate and contributary to that one purpose. 

The disposition of and the temptation to inefficient 
or ill advised management, and of politically dominated 
management and control, is to divert as much as possible 
of the appropriations for Current running expenses to 
other uses than Expenses of Instruction. 

Let us take the Summaries of Current Expenses of 
our two largest school systems in this country, — New 
York City and Chicago, for the fiscal year 1921, and 
examine them. 

New York City's Budget Estimate provided for 
$91,904,114.93 for Current Running Expenses. 

The Annual Report of the Receipts and Expendi- 
tures of the Board of Education of the City of Chicago 
for the year ending June 30, 1921, shows an Expendi- 
ture of $29,600,047.33 for Current Running Expenses. 

New York City paid for General Control, 3 . 55%; Chicago, 4 . 25%. 
New York City paid for Salaries of Principals, Supervisors and Teachers, 
76.43%; Chicago 66. 3%. 



POLITICAL DOMINATION IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 141 

New York City paid for Books and Educational Supplies 4.67%; Chicago 

2.25%. 
New York City paid for Operation of Plant 5.74%; Chicago 13.8%! 
New York City paid for Maintenance of Plant, 7.43%; Chicago 10.55%. 
New York City paid for Auxiliary Agencies 1.56%; Chicago, 2.25%. 
New York City paid for Wages and Salaries of Janitors 3.65%; Chicago 

8.24%! 
New York City paid for Expenses of Instruction 82. 17%; Chicago 68.55%. 

Thus it will be seen that Mayor Thompson's Political 
School Board managed to divert to other channels than 
Expenses of Instruction 13,62% more of the total 
Expenditures for Current Running Expenses for the 
public schools than Mayor Hyland's School Board in 
New York City; and in the language of the street, 
"That's going some!" 

There is a growing drift toward diverting an in- 
creased rate per cent for General Control, Operation 
of Plant, Maintenance of Plant, and Auxiliary Agencies, 
and to reduce the proportion or the rate per cent for 
Expenses of Instruction. 

Taking the cities of 100,000 and over for the year 
1917-1918, our latest available statistics, we find the 
rate per cent expended for General Control ranging 
from 1.54 per cent in Washington D. C. to 9.5 in 
Cleveland! And Cleveland paid for the Expenses of 
Instruction, to those who do all the teaching that the 
children receive in the schools, 63 . 1 per cent, while in 
Washington D. C. there was expended 72.77 per cent 
for Instruction ! 

The item of General Control is divided into two 
general headings. Business Administration, and Educa- 
tional Administration, two Bureaus! One would 
naturally suppose that in the administration of a sys- 
tem of public schools that The Educational Adminis- 



142 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

stration would be the more important of the two 
Bureaus, but, on the contrary, we find that in most of 
the city pubhc school systems the item of Expenses of 
Business Administration is greater than that for 
Educational Administration. 

Chicago's Business Administration expense for 1921 
amounted to $702,279.81; and the total of the Educa- 
tional Administration expense was $545,894.70! 

The Budget Estimate of the Board of Education 
of the City of New York for the same year called 
for $1,062,576.01 for Business Administration, and 
$2,199,163.85 for Educational Administration! Both 
of these amounts are, to say the least, about as extrav- 
agantly large expenditures as could well be devised, 
but New York City's Board of Education does manifest 
a keener appreciation of the relative importance of 
the business and the educational administrations. 

One would get the impression from studying the 
items of expenditure of these Business Administrations 
and the grand totals, that the Business Administration 
was organized to earn the money to pay for the Current 
Running Expenses of the public schools of their respec- 
tive cities, instead of merely expending very liberal 
appropriations of public school funds collected from 
the people for educational purposes and turned over to 
the treasurers ready for the Business Administration 
to disburse. 

What an opportunity for a General Dawes to show 
the Boards of Education in New York and Chicago, and 
most other cities how to eliminate waste of time and 
money, and to increase efiiciency in the bureaucratic 
administration of city school systems! 

There is no valid excuse for any budget of a city 
school system allowing more than 2 percent of the total 



POLITICAL DOMINATION IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 143 

appropriation for Current Expenses for General Con- 
trol. That General Control department is the most 
effective, that is the most simple and direct in its 
organization. 

In Chicago for instance, the Business Administra- 
tion occupies one building, and the Educational 
Administration another building. 

This arrangement encourages and facilitates the 
building up of two separate bureaus vying with each 
other in the elaboration of its organization, and for 
increasing appropriations for sustaining it! The result 
is that there are too many high salaried functionaries, 
too many finely furnished private offices, and too many 
secretaries required to keep charge of them. If the 
whole business and educational administration could be 
reorganized and unified on the basis of not to exceed two 
per cent of the total expenditures for Current Running 
Expenses the Administration would be more efficient, 
and one fair sized building would house the Administra- 
tion Department. 

It was a great mistake to create another tax con- 
suming bureau to have charge of the Business Adminis- 
tration independent of the Educational Administration. 
The business of the Board of Education is educational 
business, and the Business Administration should have 
remained a department of the Educational Adminis- 
tration ! 

The secretary of the Board of Education is the 
logical oflScial to be instrusted with the business man- 
agement, under the general supervision of the superin- 
tendent of schools as the executive official of the 
Board of Education. 

The Educational Administration of city school 
systems could be strengthened, simplified and improved 



144 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

in efficiency by abolishing the supernumerary positions 
of district superintendents. There is no place for an 
administrative position between the principal of a 
school and the superintendent of schools. The princi- 
pal of a school district is logically and should be 
made officially the district superintendent of schools of 
his school district. It should not be necessary for a 
child nor the parent to have to go to any school office 
other than the office of the principal of his home school 
district, except in cases of a possible appeal. 

And as far as the supervision of the work of the 
teachers by a district superintendent is concerned, it is 
simply a duplication of the supervision by the school 
principal. There is no more reason why the supervision 
of the principal should be supervised, than that the 
supervision of the district supermtendent should be 
supervised. The superintendent of schools should have 
the assistance of a strong executive secretary of his 
own choosing who may be trusted to speak and act for 
him in most matters of routine occurrence, to make 
appointments, and to take care of the many details of 
his office. He should have one or more strong deputies 
or assistant superintendents to work under his direc- 
tion. The supermtendents should visit schools as 
often as their other duties will permit, or when occasion 
requires. These occasional visits, and those of super- 
visors of special subjects, and not to many of them, are 
all the outside supervision the teachers need. The 
danger lies in too much supervision ! 

In due deference to the many good people who are 
holding positions as district superintendents, and some 
of the finest school men and women the writer has 
known have been district superintendents, this is not 
to be taken as a criticism of individuals filling these 



POLITICAL DOMINATION IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 145 

positions. It is the position that the writer is criticizing. 
There is simply no place m a city school system for 
both a school principal and a district superintendent. 

Another item of expense that offers temptation to 
reckless expenditure of school funds is that of the 
Operation of the Plant. This item includes, salaries of 
janitors and other employees about the buildings and 
grounds, fuel, water, light, power, janitors' supplies, 
etc. As we have pointed out, this item varies greatly 
in the different cities. New York, 5.74 per cent; 
Chicago, 13.8 per cent! For the School year 1917-1918 
the average for the city school systems of the country 
of 100,000 and over, was 10.8 per cent, other cities 
varied from 9.3 per cent in Philadelphia, to 14.7 per 
cent in Pittsburg. 

There are two explanations for this. The janitors 
are generally unionized and they manage to use 
political pressure in presenting their tenns and condi- 
tions of service; and the appointment of janitors, and 
the purchase of fuel and janitors' supplies, are regarded 
by political boards as belonging to the Business Admin- 
istration and therefore subject to political influences. 

There is no question but that the operation of the 
school plant is a most essential part of the educational 
functioning of the schools, and that it has a direct 
bearing upon the comfort and health of the pupils and 
their teachers. It is equally true that to get good 
janitor service it is necessary to employ competent 
people, and that they should be paid well for the work 
they do. But when the largest city school system in the 
United States pays its janitors 3.65 per cent of its 
Current Running Expenses, and the next largest city 
school system pays its janitors or engineer-custodians 
8.24 per cent for the same service, the matter should 



146 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

be investigated by those responsible for the apportion- 
ment of the educational funds. 

It is notorious that the engineer-custodians are the 
aristocrats of the Chicago school system. They are 
reported to look with contempt upon the positions of 
principals and school teachers because of their compara- 
tively small salaries! Some of them, so it is currently 
reported, claim to have more influence at headquarters 
than the principal of the school and all his teachers. 
The whole system of the manner of employment of 
janitors, and their compensation is wrong. The 
janitor work is "farmed out" to the school engineers on 
a basis of the number of square feet of floor space in 
the building or buildings under their charge. They 
employ their helpers, and pay them. Naturally they 
employ the cheapest help they can get to do the 
janitor work. While this arrangement is a paying prop- 
osition for the engineers, the janitor work is likely to 
be slighted. These engineers are in no way responsible 
to the principals of the schools either for their appoint- 
ment or for the tenure of their positions. They are 
responsible to the chief engineer, and the chief engineer 
is responsible to the Business Administration ! 

The janitor should have charge of all janitor work 
anrd the care and custody of the buildings and grounds, 
and he should be directly responsible to the principal. 
The persons who do the janitor work should be paid 
by the Board of Education as all other employees are 
paid. 

The purchase of fuel has always been a matter of 
much active interest. It has been regarded as one of the 
political perquisites. This interest of course is mamly 
centered in who gets the contract for furnishing the 
fuel. But fuel is an illusive commodity. All sorts of 



POLITICAL DOMINATION IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 147 

devices have been tried to beat the game, such as heat 
producing tests, weight checks, and school scales for 
check-weighing. Experience has demonstrated that 
with fuel as it is with lumber and other movable 
commodities, it is even more necessary to find out what 
is done with it after it is weighed, measured, or counted 
than it is to check-weight, measure or count it. 

Where Janitor service is costing more than 4.5 
per cent, and the cost of operation of the plant is more 
than 8 per cent these items should be carefully scanned. 

The item of Maintenance of the plant offers a rich 
field for profligate waste, political favoritism, and 
jobbery. The Maintenance of plant is intended to 
include the items of expense for repair of buildings, 
repairs of heating, lighting, and plumbing equipment, 
repair and replacements of furniture and school room 
equipment, alterations and betterments which do not 
amount to additions to buildings or grounds or to 
permanent improvements and the necessary technical 
and administration expenses in carrying on that depart- 
ment of that work. 

Unfortunately, in the Chicago school system this 
item is inextricably bound up with the Building Fund 
account and cannot be segregated accurately for the 
purposes of comparison. With the assistance of the 
comptroller, and the auditor an approximate total was 
reached. The Business Manager's Annual Report 
simply lumps General Repairs under Building Fund 
Expenditures as $1,579,163.45. 

But for the purpose of comparison with other 
cities on the basis of the reports of other cities to the 
United States Bureau of Education we have had to add 
the following items : 



148 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

Other Educational Equipment $183,042. 18 

Factory and Repair Divisions 1,188,767 . 84 

Garage 23,770.61 

Inspection and Administration 135,171 .35 $1,530,751 .98 

Adding to this sum General Repairs 1,579,163.45 

The total for Maintenance of Plant was found 

to be 3,109,915.43 

instead of $1,579,163.45 

This amount is not exact, but it is approximately 
correct, and as nearly so as the system of bookkeeping 
would permit. 

The only difference between the Business Adminis- 
tration and the writer was over the item of $1,188,767.84 
for Factory and Repair Divisions which the Business 
Manager reported as Deferred Charges and Adjust- 
ments. The Business Department was looking at it 
from the standpoint of bookkeeping, while we were 
trying to find out the total amounts appropriated for 
the different items grouped under the same headings 
as in other cities for purposes of comparison. The 
Auditor agreed with us that the amount of $1,188,- 
767.84 for Factory and Repair Division belonged to the 
appropriation, and that the amount was being spent, 
but that the items had not been audited when the report 
was made. Notwithstanding his position for the pur- 
pose of a just comparison with other cities, and espe- 
cially New York City, we added the amount to 
Maintenance of Plant, and to the total amount for 
Current Running Expenses of the Chicago Public 
Schools for 1921. 

Chicago's Board of Education spent 10.55 per cent 
of its total amount of Current Running Expenses for 
Maintenance of Plant; while New York City's Board of 



POLITICAL DOMINATION IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 149 

Education Budget Estimate for the same year called 
for but 7.43 per cent! 

As mentioned before, the Repairs Department is so 
intertwined with the Building Department that they 
should be considered together. It is foreign to our 
purpose to discuss the Building Department. Some 
significant phases of that Department have but recently 
come to light through reports in the newspapers from 
the State's Attorney's office. 

There is no question but that if some system could 
be devised whereby the Maintenance of Plant could be 
put under efficient business management, freed from 
the influences of political patronage, that the school 
buildings and grounds would be kept in better repair 
on 4 per cent of the total Current Running Expenses 
than they are under the present slipshod political 
control methods on 10.55 per cent! 

SOME RANDOM ITEMS OF EXPENDITURES 

By way of example as an index to the extravagant 
expenditures of the Board of Education of the City of 
Chicago, the following random items of expenditures 
are taken from the Official Proceedings of the Board 
of Education of the City of Chicago: 

Superintendent of Schools recommends purchase of 
an automobile at an estimated cost of not to exceed 
$3,000 for use of Assistant Superintendent of Schools. 
September 28, 1921. 

The Business Manager recommends that authority 
be granted to purchase a Studebaker car for the use of 
the General Superintendent of Construction. November 
21, 1921. 

Bill for one Packard Sedan Motor Car ordered paid 
August 31, 1921, said to be for use of the Superin- 



150 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

tendent of schools, $7,130!! Bill of South side Sales 
Company for Buick Sedan, $2,500! 

Committee concurs in report to purchase Ford 
cars referred to it September 14, 1921, Report #3484. 
Bill for Ford Roadsters amounting to $2,174.87 
Approved September 28, 1921. 

Bill of H. H. Rosenberg, Sponges $18,000!!! 

How many "Sponges" does it take to absorb 
$18,000 of Maintenance of Plant funds? 

The Superintendent of Schools recommended that 
phonographs be purchased for each building in the 
city at a cost not to exceed $100 for elementary schools, 
and $200 for high schools, and that the same be paid 
for out of the Building Funds! Referred to Building 
and Grounds Committee! Board Report #2590 Dec. 
29, 1920. 

On February 23, 1921, the Supermtendent recom- 
mended that the original recommendation as to price 
of phonographs be amended to read not to exceed $160! 

No further record of this deal appears until April 
15, 1921 when the amount of $42,982.50 split into four 
bills in amounts as follows: $15,750; $7,717.50; $16,065; 
and $3,450 in favor of the Hiawatha Phonograph 
Company was ordered paid. On November 21, 1921, 
another bill for $1,732.50 was reported, authorized and 
ordered paid to the same company. The grand total so 
far as the record showed was found to be $44,715.00. 

For some unaccountable reason the Business 
Department would not give out the information as to 
the price paid for each phonograph nor the number of 
phonographs purchased, and as the OflBcial Proceedings 
fail to give these minor business details, we were left 
to assume that substantially the authorized, "not to 
exceed $160 for elementary schools and $200 for high 



POLITICAL DOMINATION IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 151 

schools" were the prices paid. It would seem to be 
reasonable to assume that the business of a Board of 
Education is public business, and if so the public has the 
right to know what articles are purchased and the 
price paid, but evidently this is not true in all cases. 

On May 9, 1922, a report was published in the 
newspapers that Mr. Free Moynihan, treasurer of 
Hiawatha Phonograph Company had been called in by 
Assistant State's Attorney Hodges who was investi- 
gating some of the School Board expenditures. He was 
reported to have said that the company of which his 
brother, P. H. Moynihan, eighth ward politician, is 
president, had sold 298 phonographs to the board of 
education at $157 each. The bills amounted to 
$48,704.56. 

Forty per cent of $48,704.56 is $19,481.82. 

It may be of interest for the reader to know that the 
Boards of Educations in other cities have made pro- 
vision for the purchase and repair of phonographs, and 
for educational phonograph records for their schools. 
Some of the leading phonograph companies maintain 
educational departments with field musical experts to 
travel over the country and demonstrate the uses of the 
phonograph in the schools, they have also prepared sets 
of carefully selected, and graded educational records to 
be used with their phonographs classified and cata- 
logued for the guidance of teachers and parents in their 
choice of suitable records. These companies have 
developed specially designed school machines for school 
use. These machines have all the tone producing 
mechanism of their respective high priced commercial 
instruments, but they are stripped of all nonessential 
and expensive furniture making them simple and 
lighter for moving from floor to floor, and from room to 



152 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

room as needed. These school phonographs may be 
purchased at prices ranging from $75 to $115. No 
better phonographs, so it is claimed, can be purchased 
at any price for school purposes. 

The following is taken from the Budget Estimate of 
the Board of education of the city of New York for the 
year 1921. 

"Auxiliary Agencies (Other than salaries) 
Purchase and Repairs of Phonographs and Records 

100 Phonographs at $75 $7,500.00 

3,500 Records 3,720.00 

Repairs to machines 600 . 00 

Total, Phonographs and Repairs of $11,820* 

*It was subsequently decided to request $5,000 for this item." 

It would be illuminating and instructive to have all 
the details of this phonograph deal brought out into 
the light, but there is not much liklihood that that will 
ever be done. 

The phonograph is generally recognized as being a 
valuable aid in the teaching of music appreciation, and 
for furnishing music for calisthenic exercises and folk 
dancing both indoors and outdoors. Many of the 
schools in Chicago had contrived to purchase some one 
of the well known and generally recognized makes of 
phonographs out of funds raised by the schools in one 
way and another, so that many of the schools were 
provided with a standard phonograph. There is no 
doubt about the propriety of the Board of Education 
purchasing a phonograph for a school building that is 
not already provided with one, and that may not be 
able to raise the money to purchase one, provided there 
is money in the budget fund for that specific purpose. 
But, the judgment and advice of the principal of the 



POLITICAL DOMINATION IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 153 

school, the teachers, and certainly of the music depart- 
ment, should be taken in the choice of a musical 
instrument, and this should apply to pianos as well as 
phonographs. It does not look right to say the least 
for the building and grounds committee to bargain for 
musical instruments as it would for sponges, limousines, 
lumber, and garbage cans. 

A few other items of expenditure taken from the 
Business Manager's Annual Report for June 30, 1921 : 

Garage $23,770 . 61 

Community centers 129,549 . 43 

Bath rooms 118,079.73 

Transportation of pupils 144,957.91, and 

Penny lunches 119,426.09 

It seems that the Chicago Board of Education owns 
and keeps in operation a fleet of automobiles of all 
sorts and makes. Two of the finer ones are for the use 
of the members of the Board of Education. The 
$7,130 Packard Sedan is for the use of the superin- 
tendent of schools. The assistant superintendents 
and district superintendents, have automobiles fur- 
nished them. 

Automobiles are also furnished to the various and 
sundry superintendents, inspectors and foremen of the 
different departments of the Business Administration. 

There seems no way of finding out even approxi- 
mately how much of the educational funds are actually 
dissipated for the purchase and maintenance of this 
fleet of luxurious automobiles. The salaries of chauf- 
fers, garage rental allowances, and most of the items 
for the upkeep of the luxury fleet are so distributed 
as to elude detection. Possibly some of them might be 
found lurking in the deep recesses of account, "Z," 
Contingent and Miscellaneous Expenses of the Business 
Administration, amounting to $34,352.70. 



154 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

It makes little material difference where these 
expenses are charged or how successfully concealed from 
the public, the fact remains that these expenses, with 
few exceptions are unnecessary and for that reason not a 
proper charge against the public educational funds of 
the schools. 

It is reasonable and proper for certain superin- 
tendents of construction and foremen, and for the 
bureau of supplies to be provided with trucks for the 
transportation of materials from building to building, 
but it is a heavy strain upon the right of "wide power of 
discretion" on the part of the Board of Education to 
appropriate school funds for the purchase and upkeep 
of passenger automobiles for the use of any of its 
members, officials or employees. The transportation 
facilities of the city provide the principal means for the 
great majority of taxpayers of the city to travel from 
their homes to their work and from place to place in the 
pursuit of their occupations while earning the money 
with which to pay their school taxes. Those who 
prefer to ride in an automobile own or rent a car, and 
pay for its care and upkeep out of their own pockets. 

The superintendent of schools can reach the most 
remote school building in the city from his office by 
public conveyance in one hour and fifteen minutes, 
and he probably would pass a number of school 
buildings on the way. 

It would be much more reasonable to provide 
private transportation for the supervisors, principals, 
and teachers who have to make the round trip daily to 
the remote schools, than to furnish a superintendent 
or a school board member a sedan and chauffer for an 
occasional call. Most of the school buildings in the city 
may be reached from the down town offices of the 



POLITICAL DOMINATION IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 155 

Board of Education by elevated train in less time than 
by automobile. In case of immediate emergency a 
taxi could be summoned. 

The whole scheme of Board of Education owned 
automobiles is an index of a school board's extravagance 
in the expenditure of public school funds for other 
than educational purposes. 

In the first place, it sets a bad example to the 
children in the schools whom the teachers are instruct- 
ing in habits of thrift and high ideals of civic virtue; 
and, in the second place, it displays a blunted sense of 
civic responsibility in the spending of public money 
raised by taxation. 

At a time when the President of the United States 
was urging upon the spending agencies of the federal 
government the curtailing of all unnecessary expendi- 
tures, many school boards were seeking pretexts for 
even more lavish expenditures of school funds. They 
were increasing their Budget Estimates inordinately by 
playing upon the sentiments of the people for the 
improvement of our public school facilities, and the 
urgent necessity of doing so. 

AN URGENT PLEA FOR ECONOMY 

On Tuesday, July 11, 1922, President Harding, 
addressing several hundred bureau chiefs who had met 
to congratulate him upon the extraordinary economies 
effected by the federal budget system set in operation 
by General Charles G. Dawes, was reported to have 
made these significent statements reflecting the best 
economic thought and judgment of these troublesome 
financial times: 

"The report of the bureau for the budget for the 
fiscal year ending June 30, 1922, is a record of real 



156 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

achievment of which you may all be proud, for without 
your intelligent cooperation this gratifying result would 
not have been possible. Last August it was estimated, 
on information supplied by the spending agencies of the 
government, that withdrawals from the treasury for the 
fiscal year just terminated would be $4,554,000,000. 
The last treasury estimate shows this figure was reduced 
to $3,795,000,000, a reduction of $759,000,000." (A 
net saving from the budget estimate of 16%%!) 

"Last year, in the annual report on the budget, a 
deficit of $24,000,000 was forecast; instead, we closed 
that fiscal year with a surplus of receipts over expen- 
ditures of $313,000,000 — this despite the government's 
receipts fell off $1,515,000,000. That is the government 
reduced by $1,515,000,000 the amount which is 
collected from the people, and yet, because it was able 
to prune its expenditures by $1,743,000,000, it pro- 
duced an actual surplus." 

He further stated that there was no other menace to 
the nation today equal to the "mounting state and 
municipal debts." He said, these debts were piling up 
so fast, that there was "no way of knowing the present 
obligations of the American people." 

He called upon the federal executives for their 
cooperation in practicing economy, "as an example to 
the nation"!! 

"We must here resolve," he said, "that through our 
efforts expenses will be kept within income. There 
must be utmost economy. There have been established 
these business principles and proceedures which are 
capable of bringing further economy and I look to the 
government's executives for still closer scrutiny of their 
activities and attendant expenditures. If you find 
activities and expenditures that can properly be 



POLITICAL DOMINATION IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 157 

curtailed or eliminated, I admonish you to do it." 
How significant, prophetic, and timely ! 

President Harding voices here the growing public 
sentiment of protest against the reckless and wanton 
waste of public funds by irresponsible and selfish 
"spending agencies," national, state, municipal, school 
district, and boards and commissions of all sorts. 

Business of all kinds is having to readjust its affairs 
to more normal demands. Wages and salaries of all 
classes of employees are undergoing gradual reductions, 
and millions of men and women have been without 
employment with families to provide for, payments on 
mortgages on their homes to meet, and greatly increased 
taxes to pay. Land values and real estate values are 
shrinking, and the assessed value of almost all kinds 
of other property is becoming lower. Taxes upon all 
kinds of property are increasing enormously, while the 
ability of the people to pay taxes is correspondingly 
less! 

It is certainly an inopportune time for the "spend- 
ing agencies" and their self interested spell-binders to 
be agitating the necessity for greatly increased budgets 
for public school expenditures. 

What is urgently needed is a more economical and 
purposeful expenditure of public school funds. 

So much for the extravagant and wasteful tenden- 
cies and practices of bureaucratic school boards in 
many of our city school systems. There is little pros- 
pect for improvement so long as the domination and 
control of the schools are permitted to remain under 
the influence of political organizations of those cities. 
The political greed expressed in the sentiment, "To the 
victor belongs the spoils" is as prevalent as it was when 
that sentiment was first voiced. 



158 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

The only ray of hope for improvement of these con- 
ditions lies in the awakened public sentiment of the 
people to the importance of efficient and trustworthy 
financial management of public school affairs. The 
individual citizen must be aroused to an appreciation of 
the urgent necessity of his active interest in the manner 
in which public school affairs are conducted in his own 
school district, in his county and in his state. He 
should insist upon his right to a voice in the choice of 
members of the board of education whether his State 
legislature has disfranchised him or not. If the mayor 
of his city has been given the power of appointing 
the members of the board of education, he should be 
all the more careful as to his choice of mayor! He 
should join with other good people in securing the 
nomination of persons of undoubted personal and civic 
honesty for election or appointment on boards of 
education. 

BASIS FOR APPORTIONMENT OF SCHOOL FUNDS 

In regard to Expenditures for Current Running 
Expenses, school boards seem to be at sea, "Without 
rudder or compass" when it comes to making up their 
budget estimate, if they are so fortunate as to have one. 
There are changes in the membership of school boards 
from year to year, and also frequent changes of super- 
intendents of schools, so that when it comes to making 
up the budget, it is not unusual for all the members of 
the committee to be new members. They usually 
depend upon the last year's budget, the recommenda- 
tions of their superintendent, and the reports as to 
what is being done in other cities and towns. If some 
city has increased the salary of its superintendent, the 
board members are sure to be informed of that fact. 



POLITICAL DOMINATION IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 159 

New superintendents are prone to recommend new 
projects, and radical and expensive ihnovations to 
make a favorable impression of being right up to the 
minute with the very latest thing in modern education. 
There seems to be little to guide boards of education, 
and their finance and budget committees, except the 
tax levy limit imposed by law. 

It is manifest that there is need for a carefully 
worked out basis for the guidance of those school offi- 
cials who are responsible for making up the budget 
estimates for the school year, and for apportioning the 
school funds scientifically to the different classified 
items. 

It is the purpose of the writer to offer such a per- 
centage basis for the apportionment of the total amount 
of school funds available in any city school system to 
the six general items under Expenditures for Current 
Running Expenses. 

These general items with the rate per cent of each 
item of the total appropriation for Current Running 
Expenses are respectfully submitted for the considera- 
tion of those who are or may be interested in the eco- 
nomical and justifiable expenditure of public school 
funds. 

The percent of each item named in the following 
schedule was arrived at after careful and painstaking 
investigation and study of budget estimates and sta- 
tistical reports, and of school conditions in many cities. 
They represent the best judgment of thewriter, but he 
would not presume to claim that they are unalterable 
and final, nor that the different items may not have to 
be varied to fit unusual conditions in some cities. 
Experience may prove that they will have to be modi- 
fied to meet changing conditions the country over. But 



160 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

A SCHEDULE OF GENERAL ITEMS INCLUDED UNDER 

CURRENT EXPENSES, WITH THE PER CENT 

OF THE TOTAL AMOUNT AVAILABLE FOR 

CURRENT EXPENSES APPORTIONED 

TO EACH ITEM 

1. General Control: 

a. Business Administration 75 per cent 

This item should include only that part of busi- 
ness administration that has to do with Current Run- 
ning Expenses, and should exclude administration ex- 
pense pertaining Capital Outlay, — Acquisition of sites 
and Construction of Buildings, and also Expenses of 
Debt Service. 

b. Educational Control 1 . 25 per cent 

Salaries of Superintendents, Assistants, adminis- 
trative supervisors, oflBce employees, stationery, office 
supplies, and contingent expenses of the Superintend- 
ent's office, and the outside activities of the members 
of his department. 

2. Expenses of Instruction: 

a. Salaries and expenses of supervisors of special subjects, 
salaries and expenses of principals of schools, and sala- 
ries of teachers 79 . 50 per cent 

b. Textbooks, reference books, stationery, strictly educa- 
tional supplies, and other expenses of instruction, — 

Free textbook cities 4 .00 per cent 

3. Operation of Plant: 

a. Salaries of Janitors and Janitor's helpers in and about 

the school buildings 4 . 50 per cent 

b. Fuel, light, water, power, and janitor's supplies 3 . 50 per cent 

4. Maintenance of Plant 4 . 00 per cent 

Repairs and Betterments to buildings. Repairs to 
and Replacements of Apparatus and Equipment, Nec- 
essary Administration and Inspection expense. 

5. Auxiliary Agencies 1 . 75 per cent 

Libraries, Community Centers, Lectures and En- 
tertainments, Lunch room losses. Transportation of 
crippled Children, and School gardens, etc. 

6. Fixed Charges 75 per cent 

Rentals, Pensions for teachers and employees. 

Total 100.00 per cent 



POLITICAL DOMINATION IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 161 

the writer does claim that when the schedule rates 
are applied to the reports of expenditures of most of 
the cities, and to their budget estmiates for the school 
year 1921-22, they yield more equitable and reason- 
able results than the reports of expenditures, and the 
official budget estimates exhibit as the prevailing 
practice. 

Of one thing the writer feels confident, and that is 
that the taxpaying public is justly entitled to know 
how their tax money is spent, and what relative por- 
tions are spent for the different items of Current Run- 
ning Expenses. 

The one item of expense regarding which the writer 
has some misgivings is that of Salaries of supervisors of 
special subjects, principals, and teachers. The per 
cent given may be too low. If, however, a more 
equitable and reasonable adjustment of the relative 
salaries paid to high school principals and high school 
teachers, and to elementary school teachers can be 
brought about, the per cent indicated should prove to 
be reasonable and fair. 



CHAPTER V 

The Salary Question ^ 

We shall now take up the vexed question of the 
salaries of teachers and the unjustifiable disparity in 
the salaries paid to teachers, and to those who do not 
teach in the same system of schools. In order to pre- 
sent this important and, as it seems to us, fundamental 
subject, it is necessary to go into some considerable 
detail. 

The latest available statistics on the subject of 
teachers' salaries in the State of Illinois has been 
chosen for analysis and comparison for the reason that 
the school conditions and school problems in Illinois 
are fairly typical of the other States. The writer be- 
lieves that a counterpart of some of the conditions found 
to exist in regard to salaries paid to school teachers in 
Illinois, may be found in nearly all the other States. 

The December 1921 number of the Educational 
Press Bulletin issued by the State Department of Public 
Instruction of Illinois, gives, "A Comparison of the 
Average Annual Salaries of Teachers of Seventy-six 
Illinois Counties," out of the total of one hundred two 
counties of the .state. The average salaries are given 
for the three school years, 1918-19, 1919-20, and 
1920-21. 

Among the comments found in a note are these: 
"It is interesting to note a rise in teacher's salaries 
during the two year period, 1919 to 1921 ranging from 

14 . 1 per cent in County to 87 . 3 per cent in 

County." 

162 



THE SALARY QUESTION 163 

*' County paid an average annual salary 

of $624 to its school teachers for the year 1920-21!" 

" County paid its teachers an annual sal- 
ary of $1006, this amount bemg an increase over the 
$537 annual average salary paid its teachers for the 
school year 1918-19!" 

Of the 76 counties, County paid the lowest 

average annual salary for the school year 1920-21, 
viz. $496!" 

"Cook County, including the city of Chicago, paid 
the highest average annual salary, viz. $1942." 

It is our purpose to show that these reports of the 
"Average annual salaries- paid to school teachers" do 
not throw much light upon the subject of the actual 
salaries or wages paid to school teachers. In so far 
as they show a tendency to give school teachers a 
better wage, they are encouraging, but we shall endea- 
vor to show that the "Average annual salary paid to 
school teachers" is far short of being adequate for 
holding out hope for immediate improvement in the 
supply of competent teachers. 

Let us analyze these encouraging statistics for such 
light as they may throw upon the teacher salary 
question. 

The "Average annual salary paid to school teachers 
in Cook County as we have seen was $1954, the highest 
in the State of Illinois! On the face of it, that looks 
pretty good. Cook County includes the great city of 
Chicago with its highly organized and expensive school 
system of superintendents, managers, directors, princi- 
pals, supervisors, and about 8,000 school teachers. 

The report of the Superintendent of Chicago schools, 
to the County Superintendent of Schools for the year 
1920-21 gives 827 men, and 1339 women employed in 



164 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

the high schools including principals, assistant princi- 
pals, supervisors and teachers. Of this number, 739 
men, and 1091 women received $1900 or over, most of 
them considerably over; and 302 men and 311 women 
received $3000 or over. There were only 90 men and 
248 women employed in the high schools who received 
less than $1900! 

In the grade or elementary schools the report gives 
230 men and 7124 women employed as superintendents, 
principals, head assistants, supervisors and teachers. 

Of these 152 men, and 3183 women received $1900 or 
more; and 108 men and 141 women received $3000 or 
more! 

And there were 78 men, and 3183 women who 
received less than $1900. The minimum salary was 
$1200 and the maximum $12,000! 

In Cook County outside the city limits of Chicago 
there is a large area of rich farming country thickly 
settled, and a number of thriving suburban cities and 
villages. In these suburban cities and villages there 
were 182 men, and 286 women employed in the high 
schools; of these 164 men, and 182 women received 
$1900 or more, and 54 men, and 8 women received 
$3,000 or over. And only 18 men, and 104 women 
received less than $1900. 

In the elementary schools in Cook County outside 
of Chicago, there were 101 men, and 1429 women 
employed as superintendents, principals, supervisors, 
and teachers. Of these, 55 men, and 22 women received 
$1900 or more; and there were 46 men, and 1407 women 
who received less than $1900; and the average salary 
for Cook County was $1942! But the Report of the 
County Superintendent of Cook County for the school 
year 1920-21 to the State Department of Education 



THE SALARY QUESTION 165 

shows that the "Average annual salary paid to the 
men school teachers" in Cook County outside of the 
city of Chicago including superintendents, principals 
of high schools and grammar schools, teachers in high 
schools and elementary schools was only $2,405.25; 
while that paid to all women teachers was but $1358 . 65 ! 

It would be both interesting and instructive to know 
what the average annual salary paid to elementary 
school teachers for the same year actually was. This is 
an item of expense that school authorities are most 
reluctant to have set out in their statistical reports. 
Following the example of the employers of labor in the 
great industries, they like to deal in average wages 
paid! 

The city of Evanston is one of the suburban places. 
There were but 230 teachers, supervisors, principals, 
and superintendents employed in Evanston. This city 
enjoys the distinction of employing three superinten- 
dents at salaries totahng $19,000! 

This amount when divided by the number of 
teachers, supervisors, and principals employed in the 
city of Evanston is found to reduce any average 
annual salary paid school teachers in that city by the 
snug sum of $83.70! 

For the school year 1917-18, one of the school dis- 
tricts of Evanston, District No. 75, paid its principals, 
supervisors, and teachers only 55.4 per cent of the 
total amount of its Current Running Expenses, and 
9 . 6 per cent for General Control ! The average amount 
of Current Running Expenses paid to principals, super- 
visors, and teachers in city school systems in the 
United States for the same school year, was 69.61 per 
cent, and for General Control but 4 . 62 per cent! It is 
shown by the statistics that in those cities which spend 



166 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

the least for Expenses of Instruction, it is necessary to 
spend the most for General Control! 

Evansville, Ind., for the same year paid 2.2 per 
cent for General Control, and paid its principals, super- 
visors, and teachers 75.7 per cent! 

Oak Park, and River Forest taken together makes 
nearly as unfavorable a financial showing. This com- 
munity employs three superintendents; two grade 
school superintendents, one at a salary of $6,500, and 
one at $3,000; and a high school superintendent at 
$7,000 ! There are employed altogether in these schools 
but 294 principals, supervisors and teachers in addition 
to the three superintendents. The salaries of these 
three superintendents reduce the average annual salary 
of the principals, supervisors, and teachers by $57. 15. 

The salary of the high school superintendent reduces 
the "Average annual salary paid school teachers" in 
the Oak Park-River Forest High School by $82.35; but 
that is not the whole story for the high school district 
paid for General Control for that one school, housed 
in one building on one city block, the sum of $18,537 . 41 
for the school year 1920-21, which averages $218 per 
teacher for General Control; and an increase of 84 
per cent in three years ! 

The management of Township high schools in 
Illinois, and in Cook county particularly seems to be 
unrestrained in expenditure. The "Cost per pupil 
enrolled" ranges from $91 . 54 in the Palatine Township 
High School to $195.93 in the Riverside Township 
High School! Cicero Township high school costs 
$175.92 per pupil enrolled; Evanston $146.63; Kenil- 
worth, $150.45; LaGrange, $116.77; and Oak Park- 
River Forest, $108.99. These statistics are for the 
year ending June 30, 1919. What do the reports for 



THE SALARY QUESTION 167 

the year ending June 30, 1922 show for each of these 
schools? 

All of these places spend too much money on their 
high schools, and too little proportionately on their 
elementary schools. Not one of these communities 
pays too much school tax. The trouble is that the 
school funds are not sanely and fairly distributed. 
As a concrete example, the average salary paid to the 
191 teachers in the Oak Park grade school district for 
the school year ending June 30, 1922, was $1467; while 
in the Oak Park-River Forest High School district, 
the average salary paid to the 88 teachers was $2722 . 50 ! 
Kane County is reported as having paid next to the 
highest "Average annual salary to school teachers," 
viz. $1379 this being an increase of 61.3 per cent in 
three years. Good! But when this average wage is 
analyzed it is found that the women principals, super- 
visors, and teachers received an average annual wage 
of but $1316.17; and that the men, including superin- 
tendents, principals, supervisors, high school and grade 
school teachers, received $1,825.85! 

Seven men in the county were paid salaries amount- 
ing to $24,257 . 57, or an average of $3,465 ! 

There were 277 superintendents, principals, super- 
visors, and teachers who received $1400 or over; but 
there were 370 principals, supervisors, and teachers, 
16 men, and 354 women who received less than $1400! 
Note: the average for the county was $1379, but as 
the statistics were in even hundreds we had to take the 
nearest hundred to the average, $1400. 

It should be kept in mind that these two counties 
are exceptional, that they head the list of the 102 
counties in Illinois for "Average annual salaries paid 



168 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

to school teachers" for the school year ending June 30, 
1921. 

From the State Superintendent's table of, ''A com- 
parison of the average annual salaries paid to school 
teachers in seventy-six Illinois Counties," we have 
selected fifteen fairly representive counties in the better 
farming sections of Illinois, — McDonough, Pike, Moul- 
trie, Ford, Shelby, Lee, Cass, Clinton, Kendall, Marshall, 
Menard, Iroquois, Kankakee, Fulton, and Henderson. 
These counties are chosen because they represent not 
only fairly average social and economic conditions in 
Illinois, but in the whole country generally where the 
people live in the smaller cities, country towns, villages 
and on the farms. Kankakee is the largest city with 
a population of 16,753, and four thousand (4000) 
dollars was the highest salary paid to a superintendent 
or principal in the fifteen counties. 

The "Average annual salary paid to school teach- 
ers" in these fifteen counties as shown by the report 
was but $854! 

"When we consider that the salaries of all superin- 
tendents, principals of high schools, principals of 
elementary schools and of village schools are included 
in finding the average salary, we may begin to reahze 
how meager the wages are that are paid to that great 
body of school teachers who do all the teaching that 
most of the children ever receive in the rural, village, 
town and small city schools. 

There were all told 1857 teachers employed in 
these fifteen counties. There were 37 superintendents, 
and high school principals, who received $87,375 in 
salaries, or an average of $2,361, a comparatively small 
salary; and yet it was sufficient to reduce the average 
annual salary of the other 1820 principals, supervisors, 



THE SALARY QUESTION 169 

and teachers $48 ! Thus we see that the average annual 
salary paid to the 1820 school teachers in these fifteen 
counties in the prosperous agricultural sections of Illi- 
nois was only $806 instead of $854 ! 

We are familiar with the usual comment of those 
who enjoy the higher salaries, that there are so many 
more of the common school teachers that even when 
the salaries of the superintendents, high school princi- 
pals, high school teachers and special teachers are 
counted in when finding the average, that they do not 
change the average much. Well, to that self-respecting 
teacher who is struggling to make a presentable appear- 
ance, to pay off her school debts, to help educate 
younger brothers and sisters, and in many, many 
instances to help to support dependent parents on less 
than $806 annual salary, $48 goes a long way. 

Taking the whole state of Illinois for the school 
year ending June 30, 1921, as published in the Educa- 
tional Press Bulletin's "Summary of Statistical Tables 
1921)," there were 6,064 men, and 32,215 women, or a 
total of 38,279 teachers employed in the public schools 
of the state. 

"Average annual salaries paid teachers — 

Men $1,501 . 15 

Women 1,246.60 

All 1,286.93" 

When we remember that the average annual salary 
paid to all teachers in the 15 agricultural counties was 
but $854, it is evident that the larger cities in Illinois 
and in all other states as well, serve to swell the average 
annual salary paid school teachers out of all reasonable 
proportions; in this instance from $854 to $1,286.93! 
More than fifty percent! 



170 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 



An analysis of these statistics shows that: 

There were 1 ,934 men in the elementary schools, and 
53 men in the high schools, or 



1,987 men whose annual salaries were less than $1,000, 
There were 12,829 women in the elementary schools, and 
210 women in the high schools, or 
13,139 women whose salaries were less than $1,000. 
There were 1,318 men in the elementary schools, and 
2,756 men in the high schools or 



4,074 men whose salaries were $1,000 or more; and 
There were 14,720 women teaching in the elementary schools, arid 
4,660 women teaching in the high schools, or 

19,380 women whose salaries were $1,000 or more. 
There were 355 men teaching in the elementary schools, and 
1,646 men teaching in the high schools, or 



2,001 men whose annual salaries were $2,000 or more; and 
There were 2,274 women in the elementary grades, and 
1,288 women in the high schools, or 



3,562 women whose annual salaries were $2,000 or more. 
There were 172 men credited to the elementary schools, and 
462 men credited to the high schools, or 



634 men whose annual salaries were $3,000 or over; and 
There were 142 women credited to the elementary schools, and 
319 women credited to the high schools or 



461 women whose annual salaries were $3,000 or over, but 
410 of the men, and 

452 of the women whose salaries were $3,000 or over were in 
the public schools of the city of Chicago. 

We shall now leave these rather dreary Statistical 
Tables that tell us so much, and conceal so much, 
concerning those humble folk who instruct the children 
enrolled in the public schools of the great State of 



THE SALARY QUESTION 171 

Illinois, where the fact is made so much of that the 
"Average amiual salary paid school teachers" has 
increased so fast in the last three years that it has 
reached the high pinnacle of $1,286.93; the average 
salary of all the school teachers in 15 of the rich farming 
counties was but $806; and the 1987 men, and 13,138 
women teachers whose annual salaries were less than 
$1,000, and consider for a while those favored few 
individuals who are fed the cream of the public school 
funds by our well meaning but misguided Boards of 
Education. 

The Board of Education of the city of Chicago pays 
the superintendent of schools $12,000; the first assistant 
superintendent, $8,100; three assistant superintendents, 
$7,200 each; secretary of the teachers examining 
board $7,200, and an examiner, $6,600; ten district 
superintendents, $6,000 each; supervisors, directors, 
principal, and superintendent of this and that, $3,500 
to $5,000; principal of Normal College, $6,000; teachers 
in Normal College, from $1,800 to $3,600; principals of 
high schools, $4,300 to $5,700; teachers in high schools, 
$2,000 to $3800; elementary school principals $3,000 to 
$4,800; and elementary grade teachers $1,500 to $2,500! 
It was late in 1922 before the increase in the salaries 
of teachers, and principals became effective long after 
the high salaried executives had been granted their 
increases. 

The business manager has a salary of $10,000; 
superintendent of buildings $8,000; and there are the 
attorney, two assistant business managers, secretary of 
the Board of Education, comptroller, auditor, chief 
engineer, superintendent of construction and repairs, 
efficiency engineer, supervisor of transportation, super- 



172 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

intendent of bureau of supplies, and superintendent of 
repairs none of whose salaries is made public. 

Closely following Chicago's increase of the salary of 
the superintendent to $12,000, New York City, Phila- 
delphia and Pittsburg raised the salaries of their 
superintendents to $12,000! 

Jersey City pays her superintendent of Schools 
$10,500; and Boston, Buffalo, Cincinnati, Cleveland, 
Newark, N. J., Oakland, Cal,, Omaha, Seattle, and 
Gary each pays $10,000! 

The cities of the United States of 100,000 or over 
paid to their superintendents of schools an average 
salary of $7,336 for the school year 1921-22 according 
to the Bulletin, 1921, No. 30 of The United States 
Bureau of Education, a public document which every 
person who is interested in our public schools, and 
certainly every taxpayer, should, get hold of and 
thoughtfully study. 

It is most interesting to observe the baneful effect 
of the lavish generosity of Boards of Education of the 
large cities in voting exorbitant salaries to all those 
individuals employed to exercise General Control, 
upon the Boards of Education of the smaller cities and 
towns. 

The largest city in Illinois, except Chicago, has a 
population of but 76,121; there are sixteen cities in the 
state with a population of 25,000 or over outside of 
Chicago. 

Joliet, population 38,406, pays her superintendent of 
schools a salary of $7,000 and the principal of the Town- 
ship high school $6,500; but to the principals of 
elementary schools salaries of from $1,175 to $2,325! 

Rockford, 65,651, superintendent's salary, $7,000, 
principals of elementary schools, from $1,850 to $2,250, 



THE SALARY QUESTION 173 

and to elementary school teachers, $1,000 to $1,475, 
and only 39 teachers out of the total 437 teachers 
received the maximum salary ! 

Cicero, 44,995, superintendent's salary, $7,100; 
principal Township high school, $6,000; principals of 
elementary schools, $1,750 to $2,150! 

Rock Island, 35,177, superintendent's salary, $6,000; 
elementary school principals, $1,350 to $1,800! 

Springfield, 59,183, superintendent's salary $6,000; 
principals of elementary schools, from $1,700 to $3,000, 
only two received $3,000; $2,300 seems to be the regular 
salary ! 

East St. Louis, 66,740, superintendent's salary, 
$6,000; elementary school principals, $2,000 to $3,000. 

Evanston, 37,215, two districts: 

District #75, superintendent's salary, $6,500, one 
assistant superintendent, $4,000; and elementary school 
principals $1,500 to $2,500! 

District #76, superintendent's salary, $6,000; one 
assistant superintendent, $3,500 ! 

Principal of Evanston Township High School, 
salary $7,000! 

Oak Park, 39,830, superintendent's salary, $6,500; 
principal Township high school, $7,000; principals 
of elementary schools, $2,400 to $3,240; elementary 
teachers, $1,100 to $1,800, but there were no teachers 
getting $1,800, and only 9 teachers getting $1,680, 
next to the highest salary ! 

Danville, 33,750, superintendent's salary, $6,000; 
one assistant superintendent, $4,000; principal of the 
high school $4,000; principals of elementary schools, 
$1,350 to $1,700, and but one principal received that 
salary. This most efficient and dependable woman 
has been a principal for twenty-fiive years. Her 



174 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

building is the largest in the city, and yet she is paid 
but $1,700 annual salary! 

The maximum annual salary of elementary school 
teachers in Danville for the school year 1921-22 was 
$1,200 and but 41 teachers out of the 137 received that 
salary ! 

In another town "down state," having a school 
enrollment of between 1300 and 1400 pupils, the super- 
intendent of schools is paid a salary of $3,600; the 
principal of the largest elementary school has a wage of 
$1,500; but the principal of the little high school with 
an enrollment of 460 pupils and employing 20 teachers 
was paid a salary of $6,000 ! 

A nearby town employs 40 grade teachers in its 
elementary schools. The superintendent had a salary 
of $3,500; and the principal of its largest elementary 
school $1,375 ! In that same town, there is a high school 
having an enrollment of about 475 pupils, and 26 
teachers are employed. The principal of that little 
high school has the same annual salary as the State 
Superintendent of Public Instruction of Illinois!! 

Verily, verily. Truth is stranger than fiction! 

The two last mentioned towns are near the center of 
the fifteen counties of Illinois in which it was found that 
the average annual salary of all the principals, super- 
visors, and high school and elementary school teachers 
was $806. 

These are not exceptional cases, and the cities and 
towns of Illinois are not the only offenders. 

Of the 183 cities of the United States of from 25,000 
to 100,000 both inclusive, 56 of them paid their Super- 
intendents of schools $6,000 or more. The minimum 
salary was $3,600 and the maximum, $10,000! 



THE SALARY QUESTION 175 

Tulsa, Oklahoma paid its Superintendent of Schools 
$9,600, and the secretary of the school board $4,500. 

Any number of country towns employing from 
twenty to thirty teachers, and enrolling from 600 to 700 
pupils are paying their principal-superintendents from 
$3,600 to $4,300! 

There are many little country high schools en- 
rolling from 100 to 185 pupils, employing from eight 
to ten teachers that are paying their high school princi- 
pals from $3,250 to $3,600! 

In one of these towns the principal of the elementary 
school with an enrollment of 340 pupils, employing 
nine teachers, has a wage of $1,500! 

It is only a short time since the highest salary paid 
to any superintendent of schools in any city in Illinois 
outside of Cook County was $2,500! 

It requires no argument to establish the fact that 
the salaries of city school superintendents, and principals 
of high schools are inordinately excessive when compared 
with the wages paid to elementary school principals, 
teachers and supervising teachers of all kinds. There 
is neither rhyme nor reason to justify them. 

There has been a marked tendency in large cities 
towards the introduction of so called "modern business 
efficiency methods of organization and administration" 
into the school systems by Boards of Education in 
imitation in a small way of the business methods of the 
large commercial, industrial, and public service cor- 
porations. It was from this source that the notion 
came that it is necessary to have a high salaried busi- 
ness manager, comptroller, auditor, and all the other 
functionaries of a business administration, independent 
of the educational administration. 



176 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

Not so very long ago the Chicago Board of Educa- 
tion ill-advisedly appointed a committee of prominent 
business and professional men, possibly a woman or 
two, to canvass the situation and the educational field, 
and to nominate a candidate for the position of Superin- 
tendent of Schools. This committee selected a man of 
recognized ability and recommended that its candidate 
be elected at a salary of $18,000! The board of educa- 
tion duly elected the committees' candidate at the 
salary recommended, which was the same salary as 
that of the Mayor! It was a foregone conclusion that 
neither the Superintendent nor the members of that 
Board of Education could last very long. 

The new superintendent's position was made unten- 
able from the start by political opposition of the mayor, 
and the obstructive tactics of the new appointees of 
the school board. He was shorn of most of the impor- 
tant responsibilities and duties of his office, and the 
members of the board of education that had elected 
him were displaced, not legally, but in fact. The 
excessive salary voted to the superintendent was the 
prime cause of the disgraceful turmoil in school board 
politics that ensued. 

There are many of the finely financially manipulated 
business corporations that do pay certain of their execu- 
tives exorbitant salaries. The controlling interests have 
their own good reasons for doing so, and it is not for 
the purpose of earning and paying dividends to their 
minority stockholders. 

It came out in a public hearing a little while ago 
before a state utilities board that the salary of the 
president of a certain street car company was $60,000 
a year, and the attorney for the same company was 
paid $30,000 a year. 



THE SALARY QUESTION 177 

Let us assume that the services of these two worthy 
officials are actually worth $12,000 each to a corpora- 
tion, then they would actually earn $24,000 a year; 
but they are paid $90,000! This amount is charged 
against the earnings of the corporation, and it is $66,000 
more than the two officials are supposed to earn; and 
$66,000 is the equivalent of 8% dividend upon $825,000 
of the capital stock of the corporation. In fact it is 
much better than the uncertainty of dividends for the 
reason that it is paid regardless of whether dividends 
are declared or not. Returns in the form of excessive 
salaries are about all the dividends many of these 
utility corporations ever pay. 

There are those who are at the head of honestly and 
efficiently managed business concerns who receive large 
salaries, and according to the laws of trade, and sound 
business principles, earn them, and are entitled to 
them. Their occupation is the earning of money, and 
they must earn the money with which their large sala- 
ries are paid. 

But money making business enterprises are one 
thing; and public institutions supported by taxation 
quite another sort of enterprise having altogether 
different ideals and purposes. 

The public schools are not intended to be a money 
making enterprise. The school executives are not 
looking after the interests of majority stockholders. 
The only possible dividends the taxpayers can hope to 
receive m return for their investment is in terms of the 
education of the children, and in a more enlightened 
citizenship. 

It is the height of folly for a Board of Education to 
try to imitate the practices and policies of money 
making business concerns in the fixing of salaries. 



178 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

Let us consider this question of salaries from another 
angle. 

The government does not attempt to compete with 
commercial, industrial, transportation, nor public utili- 
ties corporations in the amount of salaries paid to its 
officials and other public servants. This is and has 
been the policy of the federal government, and of most 
of the state governments as well. "Salary grabbing" 
has been consistently discouraged and frowned upon 
by honest public servants and by the people. 

"Public office is a public trust"; and the honor that 
goes with a public trust has been regarded as a large 
share of the compensation for the service rendered. 
Many of our great men worthy of the honor bestowed 
upon them have willingly made great financial sacrifices 
for the civic duty of performing public service. 

The salary of the president of the United States 
of America, the greatest and wealthiest Nation, is only 
$75,000 a year! 

Our Ambassador Extraordinary and Minister Pleni- 
potentiary to the Coiu't of St. James lias a salary of 
$17,500. 

Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court, 
Howard G. Taft, has a salary of $15,000; the eight 
Associate Justices, $14,500 each. 

The United States Circuit Judges, $8,500 each; 
and the District Judges, $7,500 ! 

The members of the President's Cabinet, the Vice 
President, and the Speaker of the House of Representa- 
tives are paid a salary of $12,000 each. 

General John G. Pershing, Chief of Staff of the 
United States Army; and the Solicitor General of the 
Department of Justice each has a salary of $10,000. 



THE SALARY QUESTION 179 

The Senators, and the members of the House of 
Representatives of the Congress of the United States of 
America have fixed their own salaries at $7,500 a year ! 

The salary of the Commissioner of Education of the 
United States Bureau of Education is $5,000! 

The Governor of the State of Illinois is paid a salary 
of $12,000; and no other state pays its Governor as 
high a salary as Illinois. The Attorney General, and 
the Justices of the Supreme Court of Illinois are paid a 
salary of $10,000. 

The State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 
$7,500! 

The Judges of the State Circuit Courts outside of 
Cook County are paid salaries of $6,500 each; and the 
Presidents of the State Normal Colleges, $5000 each! 

The mayor of the City of Chicago draws a salary 
of $18,000; and his executive secretary, $5,500. 

The Chief Justice of the Municipal Court, $12,000; 
and the Associate Justices, $9,000 each. 

The Corporation Counsel, $10,000; the Superintend- 
ent of Police, $8,000; and the Librarian of the Chicago 
Public Library, $7,500! 

The Aldermen from the thirty-five city wards, 
$5,000 each. 

The tendency of the governments of all large cities 
is toward the payment of excessive salaries to their 
elective, and appointive oflScials, and to the multiplica- 
tion of sinecure patronage positions. 

How absurdly prepostrous to pay the mayor of a 
city a salary of $18,000, and an alderman of the City 
Council, $5,000 where the Governor of the State has 
only $12,000, and a United States Senator, $7,500! 

And the sum total of all salaries paid in some of our 
cities is a mere "Bag o' shells" when compared with 



180 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

the sum total of the wastefully extravagant expendi- 
tures of public funds in other directions, — Attorneys', 
and expert property value guessers' fees, for illustra- 
tion. 

The self government of large cities is an anomaly in 
representative government which was not thought of 
by the founders of our Government. The population 
and the bulk of the wealth of the country are becoming 
centralized in the cities, and the consequent amazing 
sums of money collected from taxes, special assess- 
ments, licenses of all sorts, from fees of the various 
departments, and from the sale of bonds, are a tempta- 
tion to selfish and designing politicians for reckless 
and dishonest practices in the expenditure of these 
funds. The salaries paid to the elective and appointive 
oflBcials of a city are a fairly good indication, of the 
civic ideals of a city government. 

The question comes right back to the civic respon- 
sibility of the individual citizen. The great majority 
of people are honest, and they would like to have an 
honest, sane, and efficient administration of their city 
affairs. But these people permit themselves to become 
so absorbed in their private business affairs and occupa- 
tions that they give little, or belated heed to the 
seemingly complex political affairs of their city govern- 
ment. This wide spread indifference of honest and 
straight thinking citizens to the question of city politics, 
leaves a clear field for those who make their living by 
practical politics, to organize, manipulate, and control 
their city governments for their own selfish ends. 

There is but one remedy for a corrupt and wasteful 
government of a city, and that is the nomination and 
election of men and women of undoubted personal and 
civic honesty to public office. Until the time comes 



THE SALARY QUESTION 181 

when a majority of the citizens of a city reah'ze this 
fact, and are ready to lay aside their personal prejudices 
and pet theories of government, and unite upon the 
platform of personal moral integrity of all candidates 
for office, the "Organizations" of practical politicians 
will continue to dominate and control our city govern- 
ments, and the taxpayers will have to pay the bills. 

The problem of the honest, sane and efficient 
administration of cities is one of the serious problems 
that the people will have to solve, and the people will 
have to solve it. 

The worst possible city government the people 
might choose will be better than the best city govern- 
ment that might be imposed upon it from the outside. 
The citizens of our great cities must work out their 
solutions to their own serious problems, and they may 
be depended upon to find their solutions in their own 
way. 

The people who pay the bills are primarily to blame 
for permitting a few worthies to skim the cream off of 
the educational funds and to leave the watered skim 
milk to be apportioned among principals, supervisors, 
and teachers through elaborately worked out "Salary 
Schedules for Teachers." 

The people and their Boards of Education have 
allowed themselves to be carried away by concerted 
and inspired propaganda. 

The Teachers' Colleges, Departments of Education 
of the Universities, Educational Foundations, State 
Departments of Education, and the Department of 
Superintendence of the National Educational Associa- 
tion all magnify the crying need for "Expert Super- 
vision" of school systems. 



182 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

The misguided people have been persuaded that 
the only way they can hope to improve their schools 
and to keep abreast of the times is to vote their super- 
intendent, and high school principal a great big salary, 
the bigger the better! 

Big men, and educational experts have sprung up 
like toad stools after a June rain. Many of these big 
men were formerly in charge of some of the city school 
systems later found to be so sadly in need of "expert 
supervision." 

How absurd the proposition is must appear to any 
one who takes the trouble to think it through. 

The first forward step toward the improvement of 
any weak spot in any school system from the kinder- 
garten or rural school through the university, is to 
place a strong, capable, tactful and efiicient teacher in 
that weak spot ! 

The biggest, wisest, and highest salaried superin- 
tendent or university president in the land could do 
no more to strengthen the weakest spot than to do 
that one simple act! 

But we are informed that there are not enough 
strong, capable, tactful, and efficient teachers to be had 
to man the weak spots in the public schools! That's 
the "milk in the cocoanut!" 

Why is it that with all our State supported normal 
schools, city normal schools, and county teachers' 
training schools, there is a dearth of well trained, 
capable and efficient teachers.'' 

We shall undertake to answer that question in 
another place so simply that every mother, father, 
voter, and school board member will understand it. 

This vexed question of the relative amount of salary 
to be paid to the several classes of those engaged in the 



THE SALARY QUESTION 18.S 

different kinds of educational work ought to be reduced 
to something like a scientific, just and reasonable 
basis. As we have seen, the wages paid to elementary 
teachers are out of all proportion to the fanciful 
salaries paid to superintendents, and high school princi- 
pals. There is also too wide a disparity between the 
salaries paid to elementary school teachers, and to 
high school teachers in the same system of schools. 
We shall give our reasons for making this statement 
when we take up the subject of the social, professional, 
and economic status of the school teacher. 

The question of the amount of salary to be paid to 
superintendents, high school principals, and to some 
of the favored high school teachers is too frequently 
settled upon sentimental grounds, sometimes upon the 
spur of the impulse of competition. An individual is 
personally popular and satisfactory to the school pa- 
trons, and to members of the board, and naturally they 
do not wish to lose him. He has an offer from another 
school board at an advance in salary, and too often the 
school board disregarding all precedents and salary 
schedules, pays him an unwarranted advance in salary 
to remain. Should one of their very best grade teachers 
notify her superintendent that she had received an offer 
of a position from another superintendent at a sub- 
stantial increase in salary he would most likely try to 
induce her to remain at her same salary, failing in this, 
he would probably inform her that the school board 
could not pay her an increase on account of the fixed 
salary schedule. The fixing of relative amounts of 
salary is too much of a "hit or miss" proposition. The 
result, as we have seen, is an unjust and unwarranted 
disparity in the salaries paid giving rise to discontent 



184 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

and demoralization of the teaching body in many 
instances. 

After giving considerable time and thought to the 
consideration of this subject from every standpoint, 
the writer ventures to submit for the consideration of 
those interested. 

A BASIS FOR THE EQUITABLE ADJUSTMENT OF SALARIES 

OF TEACHERS, PRINCIPALS AND 

SUPERINTENDENTS 

The plan is a simple one. This fact should commend 
it to favorable consideration. 

The average salary paid to the highest paid group 
of one-fourth of the elementary grade teachers in any 
given city school system shall be taken as the basis 
for determining the amount of the maximum salary 
to be paid to the superintendent of schools. 

The maximum salary of the superintendent of 
schools shall not be more than three times the average 
annual salary paid the highest paid group of one- 
fourth of the elementary grade teachers in the system. 

The schedule of regular class room teachers in the 
high schools shall not exceed by more than ten per cent 
the regular salary schedule of elementary grade teachers 
in the same system of schools, or in the same town 
where the high school and the elementary schools are 
under separate school boards; and under no pretext 
shall the salary paid to any high school teacher, instruc- 
tor, or coach out of the public school funds, exceed by 
more than five hundred dollars the maximum salary 
schedule for regular class room instructors in the same 
high school. 

The maximum salary of a high school principal 
shall not exceed by more than ten per cent the maximum 



BASIS FOR ADJUSTMENT OF RELATIVE SALARIES 185 

salary paid to elementary or grade principals in the 
same school system, or in the high school district 
where the high school and the elementary schools are 
under separate boards of education. 

The salary schedule for directors, and head super- 
visors of special subjects or departments of instruction, 
shall be the same as that of elementary or grade prin- 
cipals in the same school system. 

Whenever the superintendent of schools is elected 
and acts as principal of a high school whether by one 
school board or by separate boards, the rule for fixing 
the salary for the dual position shall be that for super- 
intendent of the elementary or grade schools. The 
salary shall be apportioned between the districts in 
proportion to the relative salaries of superintendent 
and principal of the high school in the same school 
system. 

This schedule for determining the relative amounts 
of salary to be paid to the various grades of public 
school employees engaged in the work of instruction 
and educational administration has been worked out 
upon strictly professional and economic considerations. 
Economic justice is the urgent need in the readjust- 
ments of our disturbed conditions and social unrest. 

Some similar schedule might be worked out for the 
readjustment of salaries and fees that should be 
allowed to the executive managers, and to their attor- 
neys appointed by the controlling interests of corpora- 
tions. 

There should be a provision inserted in the Charter 
of every stock company incorporated under the laws of 
any state which would make it unlawful for the board 
of directors of any corporation to vote or otherwise 
authorize or to pay more than a fixed minimum salary 



186 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

to any of its executive officials or managers until after 
all the stockholders had been paid a dividend of a speci- 
fied rate out of the actual earnings of the corporation. 

This is the usual practice of individuals who form a 
co-partnership for the conduct of a business enterprise. 
The partners agree among themselves to draw a 
certain minimum amount out of the business for 
actual living expenses until such time as the earnings 
of the business shall justify them in drawing out a 
larger amount. They could not do otherwise without 
impairment of the working capital of the business. 
Why should not the same fair and reasonable safe- 
guards be applied to the cooperative undertakings of a 
corporation ! 

Let us take some concrete examples for illustration 
of the practical working out of the suggested plan of 
basing all other salaries of those employed in the 
educational department of the public schools upon the 
average salary paid to not less than one-fourth of the 
elementary teachers in city school system. 

In New York City for instance, the salary of ele- 
mentary teachers ranges from $1,500 for beginners to 
$3,250 for teachers of "7A and higher classes." Let us 
assume that the annual average salary of the upper 
group of at least one-fourth of the total number of 
elementary teachers is as high as $3,000. If our 
assumption is correct, then $3,000 would be taken as the 
basis for determining the salary to be paid to the 
superintendent of schools. Three times $3,000 are 
$9,000. 

The present salary of the superintendent of the 
New York City Public Schools is $12,000! 

Salaries of high school teachers. As mentioned 
above, the schedule for elementary teachers ranges 



BASIS FOR ADJUSTMENT OF RELATIVE SALARIES 187 

from $1,500 to $3,250, and according to the suggested 
plan of adjusting salaries, the schedule of salaries for 
high school teachers should not be higher than $1,650 
to $3,575, and the maximum salary for heads of 
departments would be $4,075. The present salary 
schedule for high school teachers is from $1,900 to 
$3,700; and for head assistants, the maximum is $4,200. 

The salaries of high school principals. The salary 
schedule of elementary school principals in New York 
City is $3,750 to $4,750. By increasing the salaries of 
the elementary school principals by ten percent, it 
gives the proposed schedule of salaries of high school 
principals, $4,125 to $5,^^5. The present schedule 
gives the high school principals from $5,000 to $6,500. 

For illustration of how the proposed plan would 
work out in the smaller cities, let us take a hypothetical 
case of a city school system employing anywhere from 
400 to 500 teachers. The salary schedule of this city 
let us say, gives the elementary teachers from $1,000 
to $1,475; the high school teachers, from $1,400 to 
$3,000; elementary school principals $1,850 to $2,250; 
the high school principal, $4,200; and the superintend- 
ent, $7,000. 

The average annual salary of the highest paid one- 
fourth of the total number of elementary teachers 
employed in this city is $1,400. This amount when 
taken as the basis for determining the salary of the 
superintendent fixes his maximum salary at $4,200, 
so long as the basing salary remains at $1,400! The 
schedule of high school teachers would be from $1,100 
to $1,622.50, and the maximum salary paid to any 
teacher, or head of department $2,122.50. 

The salary of the high school principal would be 
$2,475 so long as the maximum salary of elementary 



188 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

school principals remained at $2,250. If the salary of 
the superintendent is to remain at $7,000, the average 
salary of the highest paid group of not less than one- 
fourth of the teachers should be increased to $2,333 . 33; 
and if the salary of the high school principal is to remain 
at $4,200, the maximum salary of elementary school 
principals should be raised to $3,818! 



CHAPTER VI 

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE CLASS ROOM TEACHER 
IN ANY SCHEME OF EDUCATION 

The school teacher is the one most essential per- 
sonage in any school system from the one room rural 
school and the lowest elementary grade up through all 
the grades and gradations of schools through the college 
and university. One cannot visualize a school without 
a teacher. One cannot imagine a good school without 
the presence of a good teacher in it, nor a poor school 
without the spectre of a poor weak teacher. As a 
matter of fact a school reduced to its lowest terms is a 
class of children assembled under the control and 
direction of a teacher. The old time worn saying 
"As is the teacher so is the school" is not a mere plati- 
tude; it states a great and eternal truth! 

The schools are good schools wherever they are 
taught by good, strong, and inspiring teachers and poor 
schools wherever there is a poor, weak, or indifferent 
teacher, whether the particular school be in a highly 
organized city school system, or in a one-room school 
house in a backwoods settlement of Arkansas. 

The responsibility for the kind of schools in any 
community rests primarily upon the people of the com- 
munity, settlement, or school district in which the 
schools are located; and the people, particularly the 
parents and guardians of the children, cannot shirk 
that responsibility. 

There can be no substantial improvement in public 
school education wherever that improvement is most 

189 



190 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

needed without first arousing the public sentiment of 
those communities to a reahzation of the urgent need 
for better schools, better teachers, better school facili- 
ties, longer school terms and stronger moral and finan- 
cial support of the schools. 

The individual citizen must be brought to under- 
stand and to appreciate the fundamental fact that the 
teacher of his child and his neighbor's child is the most 
important factor in our whole scheme of education. 

We wish that this statement could be permanently 
lodged in the mind and heart of every citizen in this 
great Republic! 

The marked tendency is to think of a System of 
Public Schools, a fine high school building, and a high 
salaried superintendent as the first essentials of good 
schools. 

Fine school buildings frequently shelter the poorest 
kind of schools; and old style and unattractive school 
buildings sometimes house the very best schools. 

The importance of "highly specialized" school 
supervision by persons "technically trained" is being 
overstressed by those engaged in it, and by those 
institutions which make a business of giving this 
"highly technical" training, Teacher's Colleges, De- 
partments of Education of Universities: and by 
Educational Foundations, and Departments of Super- 
intendence. 

"It is one of the great problems of the American 
public school to secure adequate supervision" (at 
$12,000 a year presumably), to quote a prominent 
authority, seems to summarize the advanced thinking 
that has been inspired by persistent propaganda. 

Without in anywise minimizing the importance of 
sane and efficient administration of a system of public 



THE IMPORTANCE OF THE CLASS-ROOM TEACHER 191 

schools, and wise and inspiring leadership of the teach- 
ing force, it may not be considered impertinent to 
paraphrase the above quotation and have it read, 
"It is the one great problem of the American public 
school to secure adequate teaching." 

TWO HYPOTHETICAL CASES 

In order to press the point of the importance of 
the well trained and technically skilled class room 
teacher, let us take two fancifully hypothetical cases. 

First, for illustration, we will suppose that the 
Board of Education of some one of the highly organized 
large city school systems decided at one time, no 
material difference when, to make a bold experiment 
in the educational administration of their system of 
schools for the purpose of getting some first hand data 
as to the relative values of highly technical and expert 
supervision, and of every day thorough going class 
room teaching and voluntary team work of the teachers 
and their principal, with a minimum of inspection and 
supervision from bureau headquarters. 

Without indicating in any manner the purpose back 
of its unprecedented action, the Board of Education 
adopted a carefully prepared resolution granting to 
the superintendents, assistant superintendents, asso- 
ciate superintendents, district superintendents, direc- 
tors and supervisors, an indefinite leave of absence to 
become effective on and after the passage of the 
resolution. 

The resolution outlined a detailed plan for the 
conduct and management of the schools. 

The plan provided that the names of all elementary, 
and high school principals were to be placed in a hat 
and after being shaken, the stenographer of the secre- 



192 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

tary of the board blindfolded, should draw three names, 
one at a time. 

The first name drawn should be declared acting 
superintendent of schools with all the authority and 
the prerogatives of Superintendent of Schools to take 
effect immediately. 

The second name, assistant superintendent, and 
the third name drawn, assistant superintendent. 

The resolution further provided for filling the 
vacancies made by the election of the three superintend- 
ents. In the event that a principal of a high school 
should be drawn and elected to one of the positions, 
the assistant principal of the school would be chosen 
acting principal of the school; and,, if an elementary 
school principal should be drawn, the head assistant of 
that school would be promoted to the position of 
acting principal. 

The acting superintendent would nominate satis- 
factory candidates for all other vacancies in the regular 
way. 

The retiring superintendents, directors, and super- 
visors were requested to turn over to the newly chosen 
superintendents their keys, records, books and papers, 
and all property belonging to the Board of Education, 
and to vacate their oflSces. The acting superintendents 
were directed to assume possession of their respective 
offices, and to enter upon the discharge of the duties of 
educational administration. 

One of the leading elementary school principals 
was drawn and duly elected acting superintendent. 

A popular lady, principal of one of the largest 
elementary schools was chosen an assistant superintend- 
ent, and a principal of one of the high schools the 
other assistant superintendent. 



THE IMPORTANCE OF THE CLASS-ROOM TEACHER 193 

After the excitement and astonishment following 
the announcement of the upheaval had quieted down, 
it was generally conceded that a fairly representative 
board of superintendents had been chosen, and general 
satisfaction was expressed by teachers and principals. 

The formal official announcement of the Board of 
Education of its action addressed to the principals, 
and through them to the teachers asked for the active 
cooperation and support of all principals, teachers, and 
other appointees and employees with the acting super- 
intendent and his assistants. 

The order went forth that all school work, and the 
established activities of the schools should be carried 
on without interruption on account of the changes in 
administration. 

This radical action was taken at the last regular 
meeting in December, just as the schools were closing 
for the holiday vacation. 

Advantage was taken of the vacation days for 
making adjustments and changes in administration in 
preparation for the opening of the schools on the first 
Monday morning in January. The schools opened as 
usual, and so far as the pupils, the teachers, and the 
principals were concerned there was no perceptible 
change in the administration of the schools. The 
official letter from the superintendent's office to the 
principals gave instructions that the work in the special 
subjects should be carried on by the teachers as it had 
been between the occasional visits of the directors and 
supervisors of those special subjects. 

At the first meeting of the principals' association, 
the acting superintendent submitted a plan whereby 
the principals should assume the duties that had been 
performed by the district superintendents. The princi- 



194 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

pals in each of the districts of each former district 
superintendent should hold two meetings a month at a 
designated time and place. They should elect one of 
their number chairman, and the chairmen from the sev- 
eral districts should meet with the Board of Superin- 
tendents twice a month for conference, discussion, and 
decision of questions of general policy on all matters 
pertaining to the schools of the whole city. 

The high school principals constituted a high school 
district. The assistant superintendents were assigned 
the responsibility for the administration of specified 
phases of executive administration, by the acting 
superintendent. 

Without going further into the details of the prac- 
tical administration of the schools, it was the concensus 
of opinion that the schools ran along smoothly. The 
semester promotions were made as usual, the classes 
were organized and the work of the second semester 
started off in full swing. 

Those members of the school board who had felt 
some misgivings of the practical workings of the experi- 
ment, were frank to admit that the business of the 
superintendent's department was carried on efficiently. 
The reports of the acting superintendent showed that 
he was fully informed as to the work of all the depart- 
ments, and his recommendations made to the Board of 
Education were plain and convincing. The routine 
business of the Board of Education moved along 
smoothly. 

A proposal was made by the acting superintendent 
that some plan should be devised whereby the teachers 
should be given a voice in the discussions of all subjects 
pertaining to the important work the teachers were 
doing such as the course of study, the textbooks, the 



THE IMPORTANCE OF THE CLASS-ROOM TEACHER 195 

amount of work assigned to the pupils in the different 
subjects taught in each grade, the promotion of pupils, 
and kindred subjects; also all subjects pertaining to the 
working conditions of the teacher, such as the number 
of pupils in a class, the number of recitations in the 
day, the necessity for a relief period of at least once a 
day, the need for an extra teacher in each large building 
for assisting backward pupils and to relieve teachers 
whenever temporary relief may be needed, and kindred 
subjects. 

It was made known to the teachers that any teacher 
might feel free to express her views upon any subject 
under discussion, either with the principal or at a 
meeting of teachers and the principal, without in any 
way prejudicing her standing as a teacher or endanger- 
ing her position, provided she keep within the ordinary 
rules observed in orderly discussion. 

While a definite plan of teacher representation had 
not been worked out at our latest report, the teachers 
felt that they were receiving most considerate and 
sympathetic treatment. Their suggestions were treated 
with due respect, and as a natural result, the teachers 
felt kindly toward their superiors in the school organi- 
zation. 

The school year began to draw near the close. There 
were all the usual problems attending the graduation of 
pupils from the high schools and from the grammar 
schools. In addition there were all the administration 
plans for the next school year. New buildings must 
be built, additions to buildings, additional teachers to 
be selected and assigned, changes in the courses of study 
to be decided upon, books and educational supplies to 
be chosen and purchased. Would the acting superin- 



196 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

tendent prove equal to the task of initiating and carry- 
ing through the larger plans for a new school year? 

The friends of the former executives were heard to 
remark that the schools were so thoroughly organized 
that any one could run them. The fact that the 
schools had run so smoothly simply demonstrated the 
value of the former technically expert supervision. 

But the plans went right forward. Changes in the 
course of study were reported from the committees of 
principals and teachers, discussed, amended, accepted 
and adopted. Textbooks recommended by committees 
adopted and ordered purchased, and supplies and 
equipment of all sorts. 

The closing days of the schools passed without 
unusual incident, the promotions were formally made, 
and the different classes in all the schools organized 
for the beginning of the regular work in September. 

During the summer vacation, the regular vacation 
school activities were carried on, the usual, as well 
as the unusual routine matters of school administration 
were brought before the Board of Education and its 
committees in a thoroughly systematic manner, indi- 
cating that they had been thoughtfully considered. 

There were the ordinary number of changes in the 
membership of the Board of Education, a reorganiza- 
tion of the board, and of its committees, but this made 
little perceptible difference in policy or practice. 

The schools opened as usual on Tuesday after Labor 
Day with a largely increased attendance. With the 
opening of school, there were new buildings and addi- 
tions to older buildings opened, requiring readjust- 
ments of district boundaries and the wholesale transfer 
of pupils. But these problems had been worked out 



THE IMPORTANCE OF THE CLASS-ROOM TEACHER 197 

by committees of principals of the districts affected, and 
one of the assistant superintendents. 

Once organized, the regular school work proceeded 
as it had done in former years. 

In so far as the members of the Board of Education, 
the principals of the schools, the school teachers, the 
pupils and their parents were concerned they could 
detect no "let down" in the school work, in the organi- 
zation, or in the effectiveness of the educational 
administration. There were heard frequent comments 
from both teachers and principals that they had felt 
freer in their work to go ahead and to carry out their 
regular program than ever before; that they had been 
thrown on their own initiative more, and as a result 
they felt the stimulus of personal responsibility urging 
them to do their best. 

At the last regular meeting in December, the Board 
of Education voted to recall the regular supervisory 
force from its extended leave. Each member was 
notified to report for duty on January 2, and to take 
up the work he was doing at the time he was relieved. 

The acting superintendents were instructed to turn 
over their respective desks, keys, and papers to the 
regular appointee, and each to return to his former 
position. 

The superintendents, directors, and supervisors 
after picking up the threads of their work, and making 
their rounds of inspection admitted that the schools 
were in good order, and that the progress of the pupils 
had been satisfactory. 

At the first meeting of the Board of Education in 
January, one of the members who had a pretty keen 
insight into the fitness of things and was blessed with 
a sense of humor, offered a resolution the pith of which 



198 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

was that whereas the teachers of our schools have served 
the pubHc faithfully at salaries anywhere from fourteen, 
to sixteen and two-thirds per cent less than the salaries 
to which they were justly entitled, that therefore be it 
resolved that any and every elementary school teacher 
who had taught consecutively for a period of seven 
years or more was justly entitled to a sabatical year's 
leave of absence at full pay, and that all such teachers 
who wished to avail themselves of the leave of absence 
would be granted that leave beginning at the close of 
the present semester. He called for the adoption of the 
resolution. It was promptly seconded, but a motion 
was made that so important a resolution should be 
referred to the committee on teachers and school 
affairs. It was so referred. 

What consternation that simple resolution caused, 
and with what expressions of satisfaction on the part of 
those teachers! 

The superintendents said that it would not be pos- 
sible to fill the places of so many experienced teachers 
from their available list of applicants. The principals, 
with one accord, stated that it would take the most 
dependable and eflBcient teachers out of their forces. 
At the committee meeting all the statistics were mar- 
shalled to show that the schools could not possibly be 
continued without these experienced teachers. 

The School Board member who had offered the 
resolution remarked naively that he did not recall any 
vigorous protest on the part of the principals or the 
teachers when the educational administration depart- 
ment was given an indefinite leave of absence. The 
members of the finance committee were brought into 
the meeting and into the discussion. The chairman 
of that committee stated emphatically that there 



THE IMPORTANCE OF THE CLASS-ROOM TEACHER 199 

were no funds available nor in sight with which to meet 
the added expense involved in the plan proposed in the 
resolution. The question of the legality of the proposi- 
tion was brought up and it was decided to refer the 
matter to the attorney of the Board of Education for 
his opinion. 

At this point the member who had proposed the 
resolution, asked the superintendent whether in his 
opinion the regular work of instruction in the schools 
would suffer in the event that the plans proposed in 
his resolution were carried out.'' The superintendent 
answered the question frankly. He stated that in his 
opinion not only would the regular work of the schools 
suffer, but that it would be physically impossible to 
secure teachers to take the places of so large a number 
for temporary positions on so short notice. 

The member of the Board remarked dryly that he 
was convinced that the superintendent had stated the 
situation as it actually existed! 

The decision of the attorney was that in his opinion 
the Board of Education would exceed its authority if 
it should grant a year's absence to a large body of 
teachers on full pay. 

This decision "killed" the resolution, and disap- 
pointed the teachers whose hopes had been raised at 
the prospects of a well earned vacation. But, there 
was an idea lodged in the minds of those teachers that 
is likely to influence their thinking, and possible action 
in the near future. 

There have been many instances where for one rea- 
son or another, a principal of one of the schools in a city 
school system has been appointed acting superintend- 
ent. The appointments are usually accepted with 
cordial approval by the other principals, and by the 



200 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

teachers. The schools have gone forward harmoniously 
under their administration, and the school board mem- 
bers have admitted that their schools had never run 
along more satisfactorily and efficiently than under the 
administration of the acting superintendent; and yet 
these same members of Boards of Education have 
voted to employ a peripatetic candidate for the superin- 
tendency oft times from a much smaller school system, 
a stranger to their system, their teachers and principals, 
and to the ideals and policies under which their schools 
had been built up and satisfactorily conducted. In a 
few instances these same board members have voted 
the new and untried superintendent a salary much in 
advance of the salary ever before paid, and more than 
double the salary that the new encumbent had pre- 
viously received. 

The elementary school principal in most cities is 
required to possess the same educational qualifications 
as a high school principal, an assistant superintendent, 
or a superintendent of schools. He must furnish 
evidence of successful experience as a teacher, and in 
most instances as a school principal. If he is qualified 
for the position of principal, he is fully qualified to 
superintend, direct, and supervise a school in all of its 
departments and activities. 

Each teacher classifies her pupils, assigns their 
lessons, furnishes each of her pupils with a list of books 
needed, registers their names, grades, ages, attendance 
and absences, supervises their movements into and 
out of the buildings, looks after their sanitary welfare, 
keeps them in order, conducts their recitations, in- 
structs and inspires them in so far as they are instructed 
and inspired, and she cooperates with the other teach- 
ers and the principal in the general control and conduct 



THE IMPORTANCE OF THE CLASS-ROOM TEACHER 201 

of all the pupils both inside and about the school 
building. 

In other words, the responsibility for the care, 
custody, conduct, moral and physical welfare, instruc- 
tion and training of pupils, rests upon the teacher and 
the principal. 

These facts not only explain why it was that the 
schools of the city described went forward for a whole 
year without the regular educational administrators, 
but it accounts for the fact that some of our politically 
dominated city school systems maintain fairly good 
schools in spite of political upheavals in their school 
boards, interference in school affairs by the mayors, 
dissipation of school funds as personal patronage and 
frequent changes of superintendents. 

The school principals, the supervisors and the 
school teachers are found right on the job teaching the 
children. "School keeps" regardless of the warring 
factions at the City Hall and at the Board of Education 
building. 

There can be no room for reasonable doubt that 
this would be the result in any public school system in 
any large city. . 

Why? For the simple reason that the principals of 
the schools and their teachers carry on all the essential 
lines of school work, day in and day out, throughout 
the whole school year. 

With most rare exceptions, any one of the elemen- 
tary or high schools of a city school system would be 
found to have done as creditable work, to have pro- 
moted as large a per cent of its pupils, to have kept up 
as high a community and school spirit without a single 
visit from a member of the educational administration 



202 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

force all year, as the average school in the same city 
system which had been regularly and systematically 
visited and supervised. 

Another point seemed to be brought out as the 
result of these experiments, and the discussions aroused 
by them. 

A city school system can be successfully and 
efficiently administered with a substantially reduced 
force of high salaried General Control Executives; and 
that the same school system cannot function efficiently 
in the absence of a substantial portion of its corps of 
regular experienced teachers. 

We feel quite safe in making the statement that a 
vacancy in the personnel of the Educational Adminis- 
tration of any city school system could be filled bythe 
school board from its corps of supervisors, principals, 
and teachers, without lowering the standards of abihty 
and efficiency of that department. If it finds that it 
cannot do so, there is something radically wrong with 
the organization of that particular school system. 

As a general rule it is the safer policy for a Board of 
Education to chose some one of the capable assistant 
superintendents, principals, or supervisors for a vacancy 
in the superintendency than to go outside their school 
system. It is better for the admmistration of the system 
and it certainly is more satisfactory to the members 
of the teaching body. There is nothing more dis- 
couraging to the personnel of any school organization 
than the feeling that the door of opportunity in that 
organization is closed to its members. 



CHAPTER VII 

The Social, Pkofessional, and Economic Status 
OF THE School Teacher 

a national citizens' conference on education 

In the Spring of 1920, there was held in the city of 
Washington in response to the urgent call of the 
United States Commissioner of Education, A National 
Citizens' Conference on Education to which the 
Secretary of the Interior had invited the governors of 
the States to attend. The governors were asked to 
select as delegates men and women of affairs, ministers, 
lawyers, publicists, business men, merchants, captains 
of industry, farmers, representatives of labor unions, 
women's clubs, and others. Mayors of cities were 
invited; chambers of commerce, farmers' organizations, 
rotary clubs, kiwanis clubs and other organization? 
were invited to send representatives. 

In addition to these, the State superintendents of 
public instruction, members of State boards of educa- 
tion, city superintendents, county superintendents, 
members of city, and county boards of education, and 
presidents of colleges, universities, and normal schools 
were invited. The response was large, something over 
500 were in attendance. A Report of the Proceedings 
has been published by the Bureau of Education, The 
National Crisis in Education : An Appeal to the People^ 
—Bulletin, 1920, No. 29. 

This Bulletin is replete with valuable infonnation 
and suggestions and should be read by every citizen who 

203 



204 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

is interested in the great questions confronting the 
American people, and especially the question of the 
maintenance of an efficient system of public schools. 

It was a notable gathering of representative leaders 
of many different civic, social, industrial, political, and 
educational organizations and groups. Many phases 
of the educational problem were discussed by able 
speakers, A number of significant and startling facts 
were brought out by these different speakers. 

It is not practicable to give even a summary of these 
facts, nor the conclusions drawn from them, but we 
shall give some of them. 

Dr. Lenord P. Ayers, Director of Departments of 
Education and Statistics, Russel Sage Foundation, 
"who probably knows more accurately the statistics 
of education than any other" gave the opening paper, 
Some Facts about the Schools and their Teachers. 

He brought out the following facts: 

First, The average school of the country is in session 
for 160 days of the year. 

Second, The average attendance for children of 
school age for the whole country is 90 days of schooling 
in the year! 

Third, Dr. Ayers' comments on the above conditions 
are as follows: "Now, if our schools are not open as 
many days during the year as they ought to be, and if 
our attendence falls below what it ought be, it is clear 
that our children do not get as much education as they 
ought, nor, indeed, as much as we actually pay for!" 

"Now if we think of our elementary school course 
as consisting of eight years of schooling, of 200 days 
each, then it means that the average attendance of the 
average school child is such that it would take that 
child thirteen years to get through the course. And 



STATUS OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER 205 

it means that in some of our states the attendance is so 
poor and the school year so short that to complete eight 
years of schooling of 200 days each would take the 
pupil 22 years!" 

"These are the conditions affecting not simply a 
few of the children of our country, here and there, but 
the average child on the thirteen year basis, and many 
children on the 22 year basis." 

Other authorities tell us that the average pupil 
enrolled in the public schools leaves school for good 
before completing the work of the sixth year grade! 
When speaking of averages, as we have seen in our 
discussion of the average salaries of school teachers, 
means that fully one half of the children drop out of 
school all along the way from the first year grade up 
through the sixth year grade. 

In introducing Dr. Wilham C. Bagley, the Com- 
missioner of Education, Dr. P. P. Claxton said, in part: 

"After all, the teacher is the school, and the handle 
that we take hold of first in this conference is the 
teacher. 

We have never had an adequate number of well- 
prepared teachers for the schools of the United States. 
* * *This year there are 45,000 to 50,000 schools 
taught by teachers who are below the minimum legal 
standards of the States in which they are located. 
There are over 300,000 teachers whose attainments or 
qualifications are below any reasonable standard that 
ought to be accepted for the schools of a great democ- 
racy like ours. 

Furthermore, not enough teachers have ever been 
prepared at any time to fill our vacancies. Next fall 
approximately 120,000 new teachers will be needed in 
the elementary schools of this country. All of the 



206 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

normal schools together are graduating only about 
20,000; other schools will graduate, with some profes- 
sional training, about 10,000 young men and young 
women who will enter teaching; thus we may expect 
to have 30,000 prepared teachers to fill 120,000 places, 
leaving 90,000 to be filled by those who have had no 
professional preparation, and most of them have had no 
adequate general education, even." 

Dr. Bagley's subject was, 

Adequate Pre/paration for an Adequate Number of 
Teachers to Fill the Schools of the United States. 

His introductory statement was, "The present 
status of the public school teacher constitutes the most 
serious problem in American education. The great 
bulk of our teachers are immature, transient, and ill- 
trained. * * *I believe we should set before the people 
the need of a mature, well-prepared, and relatively 
permanent teacher for every classroom in the land. I 
place this ideal first, because even its approximate 
realization would do more to solve the educational 
problem than any other one step that could be taken. 
Teaching at its best is a fine art, which is to say that it is 
the personal and human elements that are funda- 
mental." 

"The fundamental ideal I have proposed carries 
with it by way of corollary a second standard, namely, 
the recognition of rural-school teaching as at least equal 
in its significance to any other branch of public-school 
service. * * * 

"How severely the Nation suft'ers because of the 
neglect of the isolated schools of the open country and 
the small villages may be somewhat dimly compre- 
hended when we remember that these schools enroll 
in the aggregate nearly 60 per cent of our boys and 



STATUS OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER 207 

girls, and that a clear majority of the voters of the next 
generation will be limited in their educational oppor- 
tunities to what these schools can provide." 

Dr. David Felmley, president of Illinois Normal 
University spoke on the subject, The Source of Supply 
of Teachers. 

In summing up his arguments, he said, "If we are to 
have a well-equipped teacher for every child in the 
country, it is through the development of our normal 
school system, by increasing the extent of the work, by 
multiplying normal schools, by extending their cur- 
ricula, by lengthening their courses for such teachers 
as can find it expedient to continue their work, and by 
preparing for every phase of the public-school system." 

Dr. Albert Shaw, Editor of The Review of Reviews, 
spoke, in part, as follows : 

"Education is the vital process by virtue of which 
the Nation renews itself and advances upon the lines 
of its higher destiny. Education, therefore, is the 
essential phase of all statesmanship in a democracy, 
and not a separate and distinct interest." 

"There was a period within the memory of men and 
women now living when, in the United States, the 
average conditions of country life were more favorable 
than those of town life. These conditions have changed 
with the great progress of industry and commerce and 
the massing of wealth in urban communities. There 
has been a steady increase in educational plant and 
opportunities, because the great town has been 
permitted, by the policy of the State, to draw upon its 
resources of wealth, to provide school facilities of a 
superior kind. Meanwhile the prevailing type of 
school in the country has remained the one-room, one- 



208 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

teacher establishment, far less effective in its relation 
to the rural community than the country schools of 
50 or 75 years ago." 

"To bring about the needed improvement will 
require a considerable period of time, and the careful 
adoption of a series of stimulating measures and 
policies. But the first and foremost of policies should 
grow out of the principle that the farmer's children are 
not to be penalized for sticking to the farm.'" 

"I do not believe in meeting the crisis caused by the 
shortage of teachers with mere palliatives and with 
pitiable, temporizing measures. I believe that we 
should turn the tables completely and meet the crisis 
by the adoption of bold policies." "The profession of 
teaching is not destined to decline, but, on the contrary, 
has ahead of it, in a future not long distant, such 
opportunities as should invite thousands of young men 
and women to train themselves for what is to be 
decidedly the foremost of the professions." 

"The further continuance of our American insti- 
tutions now depends upon universal training for citizen- 
ship and upon the prosperity and success of our social 
and economic life, rural as well as urban." 

Hon. William L. Harding, Governor of Iowa, one of 
the most aggressively active governors in the country 
in the interest of public schools of his State, presided 
over the general sessions of the Citizens Conference on 
Education and delivered the opening address. The 
governor of Iowa has less authority over the manage- 
ment and control of the public schools of that state than 
the governors of many of the other states. The organi- 
zation of the State Department of Education is most 
simple and effective. The state superintendent is 
elected by the people and he exercises the general 



STATUS OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER 209 

direction and management of the State's functions 
in public school education without let or hindrance of 
the governor, a state board of education, or a state 
board of regents. 

The personnel of his office force numbered but 29, 
and the total of salaries paid was but $44,420 as 
reported in Bulletin, 1920 No. 46, and yet, the State 
of Iowa ranked 7 in efficiency by the Ayers' test. 

Governor Harding is therefore interested in the 
subject of schools as a leading citizen of his State and as 
governor of the State. 

The following statements are from his most practical 
and inspiring address: "The new slogan is, 'AH must 
be educated.' " "Education must do two things: It 
must see to it that the individual becomes self-sup- 
porting, and it must enable the individual to contribute 
something to and enjoy the benefits of the higher 
life. It is not enough for him to live; he must contribute 
something to civilization. That education which does 
not enlarge the faculties of the individual to enjoy the 
good and noble things of life and make for contentment 
is a failure." 

"The rural school should be made the community 
center. The old-time lyceum or debating society should 
be revived. Father and mother and the children went 
to the schoolhouse together in the old days under that 
institution, a wonderful institution." 

"The schoolhouse should be used six days and 
evenings in the week, and 12 months in the year. We 
have too much money invested in school property to 
have the door locked so much of the time. In my 
State alone, according to the last estimate I had, we 
have over $50,000,000 invested in school property. 
And then, think of using it only 3, 4, 5, or 6 hours a 



210 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

day, 5 days in the week, and 8 or 9 months in the year! 
No banking institution, manufacturing institution, 
could prosper under those conditions." 

"One thing absohitely essential to a good school 
system is interested, active parents. They are the 
folk that make the schools. We need a campaign of 
education to arouse the parents of America to the fact 
that the schools are their property; that they are in 
their care and keeping; and that they need their every- 
day care and attention." 

"The teacher should be employed and paid for 12 
months out of the year, and contracts should run for a 
period of not less than five years. And the school 
district should, out of its own pocket, see to it that the 
teacher is decently housed." 

"Teaching should be made a profession. The 
standards for admission should be high and inflexible. 
A man can not practice law until he meets the require- 
ments of the State. It makes no difference how scarce 
lawyers are; he can not get in. The lawyer represents 
your property in court; the teacher represents the 
constitutional rights of boys and girls. Which of the 
two are the most sacred.^ Shame on America for having 
been asleep!" 

"Make of teaching a profession, so that men and 
women can enter it for a life's work and be in a position 
to say, — T am a teacher, and proud of the profession!" 

Dr. Frank E. Spaulding, Dean, School of Education, 
Yale University, read a strong and vigorous paper on 
the subject An Adequate Program of Public Education. 

"It is high time to take the offensive in the struggle 
for education," he said. "W^e have been on the defen- 
sive long enough, trying merely to retain the ideals, 



STATUS OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER 211 

the standards, the types, the quantity, and the qiiaHty 
of education that prevailed up to three years ago." 

"The occupation of teaching — as a whole, we are 
not justified in calling it a profession — is being deserted 
in the present and shunned for the future." 

"An adequate program of public education for the 
present day and age must set for its achievement three 
definite, but closely related, objectives. Stated in 
simplest terms, these are: 

First. Essential elementary knowledge, training, 
and discipline. 

Second. Civic intelligence and responsibility. 

Third. Occupational-economic intelligence and 
efficiency. 

This program must seek the achievement of every 
one of these objectives, not with a selected few or even 
with a majority, but with every one of the children and 
the youth of the land, native born and immigrant." 

"The educational crisis that confronts us is, indeed, 
serious, alarming. It can be adequately met only by 
prolonged devotion of the best, the most statesman-like 
intelligence the country affords; only by the resolute 
determination of the most enlightened public senti- 
ment; only by the adoption of the profession of teach- 
ing, making it in reality a profession, by hundreds of 
thousands of thoroughly educated, professionally 
trained, professionally minded men and women; 
only by the annual expenditure of unprecedented 
sums of money. But all these conditions are pos- 
sible, indeed eminently practicable. The wealth of 
the Nation is equal to the burden. Should it necessitate 
the radical curtailment of gross wastes and extrava- 
gances, public and private, flagrantly rampant on 
every hand, so much the better." 



212 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

Dr. Charles H. Judd, Director of the School of 
Education, University of Chicago, spoke on the sub- 
ject, — 

Economies in Education 

"The origin of the present crisis in American educa- 
tion bears date not of 1917 nor yet of 1914. The crisis 
has been in the making since colonial days. If there had 
been no war we should shortly have had to face practi- 
cally every one of the problems which now confront us." 

"Within the last 10 years the number of high-school 
teachers has more than doubled. From 1909 to 1916 
the number of high schools increased from 5,920 to 
8,906. Each of these high schools, it should be borne 
in mind, represents a unit of equipment and upkeep. 
These figures present a picture of one of the boldest 
experiments in civilization that has ever been tried." 

"Our Nation launched this great experiment with- 
out any serious counting of the cost." 

"We are confronted to-day by a mathematical fact. 
Our high schools are crowded. They cost per capita 
about twice as much as the elementary schools. They 
have not reached the limits of their growth. They 
stand as one of our gravest financial problems," 

"The fact is that in all our great cities education is 
becoming at the present time an intolerable burden 
on property. The property tax in most cities, at least 
in the form in which it is now administered, will not 
provide for the schools in the future without destroying 
property values." 

"There is no need of obscuring the facts; cities can 
not support schools by the present methods of collecting 
revenue." 

"The schools depend for their life on a new plan of 
collecting and distributing revenue." 



STATUS OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER 213 

"This paper is a plea for economies in organization. 
If we are wise, we shall eliminate waste by coordinating 
educational institutions and by finding the true method 
of adjusting schools to other public interests." 

There was but one other speaker, so far as we recall, 
who spoke of the urgent need of wise expenditure of 
public school funds. In a statement by Mr. H. E. 
Miles, of the National Association of Manufacturers, 
he said: 

"The remedy. America has always her one cure-all, 
the one you are emphasizing in this conference — more 
money. The chart I now present shows what more 
money, and then more, has done for public education 
in fifty years. Spend all we have under the present 
system and we get nowhere." 

The chart to which Mr. Miles referred is, Trends of 
average daily attendance and expenditures in public 
schools in the United States from 1870 to 1918 in per 
cent of the figures for 1870. From "Trends of School 
Costs,'' by W. Randolph Burgess, published by the Russel 
Sage Foundation. It indicates that while the per cent 
of expenditures for public education increased eleven 
fold in 48 years, the per cent of average daily attend- 
ance in the schools increased but two and about one- 
third fold! 

Mr. Miles's plea was for caring for the education 
and training of the boys and girls after they are through 
or have left the elementary grades, as his statement, 
"We must understand that education comes after 
children leave the elementary schools, if it ever comes," 
shows. 

From the Report of the General Committee on State- 
ment of Principles, we quote those bearing upon the 
status of the teachers: 



214 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

"Teachers throughout the educational system are 
now laboring under economic conditions much less 
favorable than before the war. The dignity of the 
teaching profession has in consequence suffered a lam- 
entable loss in social recognition." 

"Comparatively few men remain in the teaching 
profession, and the widening opportunities in business 
and in industry are constantly tempting an increasing 
number of women from the schoolroom." 

"Larger and larger numbers of trained teachers are 
urgently demanded, but appreciating the inadequate 
salaries, students carefully avoid the normal schools 
and teacher training schools and flock to other fields." 

^''Remedies. — There must be a reconstruction and 
respiritualization of many of those in the teaching 
profession." 

"The teacher's calling must be elevated in public 
esteem to the dignity of other professions." 

"Above all and transcending in importance all 
other remedies, however, is the imperative demand for 
competent and well-trained teachers." 

"The teacher always has been and always will be 
the keystone of a good school." 

With these authoritative statements from such 
representative men upon the educational conditions 
of the country, the urgent needs of the public schools 
and the remedies proposed as a background let us 
consider, 

THE SOCIAL STATUS OF THE TEACHER 

It is our purpose to discuss this subject from the 
standpoint of the school teacher, and of those young 
people who are considering the important question of 
the choice of an occupation or profession. 



STATUS OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER 215 

What of the noble profession of teachmg? 

School teachers have become saturated with and 
inured to the customary rhetorical praises of their 
exalted profession. 

"Educators of America, no class of people in this 
great Republic have more important duties, or more 
serious responsibilities, than those that devolve upon 
you, unless it be the mothers of the land. Next to the 
mother the teacher is the one to watch carefully over 
the young children, to develop properly their minds 
and morals, to train them in the way that they should 
go in all things — not alone the head but the heart also. 
Are you doing that, my teacher friends? Are you really 
training these boys and girls submitted to your care 
in the way they should go? Are you making them 
better men and better women because of your training? 
I hope so." 

"Teachers of America, in your schools and colleges, 
your elementary institutions and those of higher 
learning let me entreat that you never forget to incul- 
cate good morals among your pupils; teach them to 
love home; teach them the beauties of family life; make 
them understand that they should love their neighbor 
as themselves and God as their creator and best 
friend; teach them patriotism, devotion to their coun- 
try, strict obedience to all its laws; and never permit 
in your class rooms anything bordering on disloyalty 
to State or Nation. You have a wonderful opportunity. 
I hope and believe you will exercise it." [From the 
peroration in his Opening Remarks by the Presiding 
Officer, Senator Joseph E. Ransdell, United States 
Senator from Louisiana, Department, Relation of 
Education to Material Wealth and National Defense, 
of the National Citizens Conference on Education.] 



216 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

It would be well worth the price of admission 
including the war tax, to hear the comments of a group 
of school teachers upon this eloquent peroration of the 
the senator from Louisiana to the teachers of America, 

School teachers hear these lofty sentiments at al- 
most every public gathering of teachers, and when they 
do one may see them nudge one another and exchange 
significant glances. They have come to feel that these 
finely worded encomiums are but empty oratorical 
flights. But every word expressed by the senator 
is true. Teachers do have this sublime work of incul- 
cating a love of the true, the beautiful, and the good 
in the minds and hearts of their pupils, and in the 
main they are faithful to their trust. But while doing 
this exalted work, they are entitled to feel that they 
have the social recognition of the people of the com- 
munity where they are employed, especially the teach- 
ers from out of town. Are they accorded this social 
recognition.'^ Teachers who are fortunate enough to be 
employed in their home towns fare better socially than 
the other teachers as a rule; they retain the social 
position of their family, but the fact that they are 
school teachers does not seem to improve their social 
status. 

School teachers as a class are not accorded the social 
recognition that the dignity of their calling deserves, 
neither by the parents nor by the young people of 
the community. 

These fairly well educated young women who have 
been chosen with discriminating care to assume that 
most intimate relation to the children "next to mother," 
are left to shift for themselves in the very important 
and necessary task of finding refined, congenial, and 
comfortable homes, or living quarters even. About 



STATUS OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER 217 

all the courtesy and assistance given them usually, is 
that of the "Rooms for rent" columns of the news- 
papers, and possibly a list of rooming houses, and 
private families that might accommodate school teach- 
ers, handed them by the superintendent or by his office 
clerk. 

These young women are from comfortable homes. 
They are accustomed to the ordinary conveniences, 
comforts, and refinements of a home, where they may 
receive their guests in the family parlor or sitting room. 
These teachers are put to all manner of makeshifts to 
obtain even endurable living quarters in communities 
which pride themselves and even boast of their homes, 
churches, and fine schools. 

This question of providing suitable homes for 
school teachers is a vital question that must be faced 
and solved, and it will have to be solved in most places 
by admitting teachers into private homes. 

School teachers naturally resent the tendency to set 
them apart, or to herd them, in teachers' boarding 
houses, or homes for teachers; and wisely so, for the 
very good reason that school teachers, as well as those in 
other occupations, Hke to leave the cares and responsi- 
bilities of the daily routine occupation behind, and to 
find rest and change in the environment of their home 
life. 

Here is a commendable activity for the Parent- 
Teacher Association, the Mothers' club, and the civics 
committee of the Women's club, among their many 
other splendid activities, to add a home-finding com- 
mittee for their school teachers. After necessary 
publicity and investigation, the committee might com- 
pile a list of desirable homes that would take one or 
two teachers, providing a well furnished room with heat. 



218 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

suitable for a bed room and study, and with the privi- 
lege of using either the reception room, living room, 
library or parlor to receive guests. 

In at least one city, a committee of representative 
women, in response to what the women felt was a civic 
duty, undertook to render this much needed service 
in behalf of the many out of town teachers for whom it 
was necessary to find suitable living quarters. The 
chairman of this committee was a capable, and tactful 
woman who devoted all the time and effort necessary. 
Through the good oflSces of this committee many de- 
sirable homes were opened to the teachers that would 
not have been in any other way. 

This committee drew up its minimum specifications 
of accommodations that would be acceptable for listing 
a boarding place for teachers. 

Through the work of this committee, the new 
teachers were enabled to secure better living conditions 
at reasonable rates; they were assigned to congenial 
homes in respect to church affiliations, and other 
social or personal preferences. 

The best part of it all is that the teachers felt that 
the women of that city were genuinely interested in 
their comfort and social welfare, and that there was a 
warm hearted reception committee to meet them at the 
threshold of their new environment. 

It is the exception rather than the rule for the 
school authorities, the people of the community, or 
any of the social organizations or clubs to extend any 
sort of social recognition to the teachers who are to 
occupy so intimate and important a part in the com- 
munity life. 

Sometimes we hear of a Parent-Teacher Association 
holding a reception and inviting the parents to meet 



STATUS OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER 219 

the teachers, but even with this favorable opportunity, 
comparatively few of the parents attend these recep- 
tions. 

The churches usually show more interest. The 
pastors and the visiting committees are prompt in 
seeking out the teachers of their respective denomina- 
tions, and in welcoming them to their church home. 
The superintendent of the Sunday school not infre- 
quently drafts the new teachers to teach a class. The 
teachers who accept the responsibility, and other 
teachers who attend that church, and in most places 
they are expected to attend church, are privileged to 
attend the church socials, church suppers, and the 
young people's meetings. 

But how many of the parents include the teacher 
of their children when they are entertaining other guests 
at their home functions for the purpose of introducing 
her to their friends. Why not? 

Let it be understood that the teacher out of her 
home environment, a stranger in a strange city, is not 
seeking the social recognition ot the so-called "smart 
set" that every fair sized community includes and 
endures; it is from the substantial, refined, home- 
loving families that she craves hospitality and recog- 
nition. 

School boards, and the mothers and fathers, set up 
artificial standards of conduct for school teachers which 
are not regarded as necessary or desirable for their 
own sons and daughters. In other words, school 
teachers are expected to conform to rules of conduct 
made for and imposed upon them by common consent 
of the social lawgivers of the community as models 
and examples for the rising generation, and yet the 



220 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

framers of these drastic rules of conduct do not think 
of enforcing their code upon their own sons and daugh- 
ters, nor upon young people engaged in other occupa- 
tions. 

As a result of this ''setting apart" of school teachers, 
there has grown up a popular notion that a school 
teacher is a prim, precise personality, inclined to didac- 
tic opinions, severe, unsociable, austere. This mistaken 
popular estimation in which school teachers are re- 
garded is not discouraged by the other young women 
and their fond mothers. 

The boys and girls understand and appreciate this 
social limitation placed upon school teachers, and they 
accept it and share in it, and seeing it and sensing it 
as they do, is it any wonder that they are so frequently 
overheard to remark: "I never want to be a school 
teacher." And, "I would never think of marrying a 
school teacher." 

School teachers are not inately different from other 
women. They are just as socially inclined as other 
women who do not teach school. They naturally feel 
that they would like to meet and mingle with people 
of good social standing on their personal merits as 
women of education, good breeding and culture. 

And who shall say that they do not deserve and 
merit this social status ! 

There have been, and there are exceptions to the 
rule. Some teachers have been welcomed to the homes 
of good families; and there are instances where school 
teachers have made desirable matrimonial alliances. 
Their good fortune did not come through social recog- 
nition, but in spite of it. 

While we appreciate fully that this question of the 
social status of the school teacher is a delicate subject 



STATUS OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER 221 

to handle, and that there is much to be said on both 
sides of the subject, the fact remains that these social 
handicaps do deter many young women from entering 
upon the occupation of teaching, and they are among 
the reasons why, "students avoid the normal schools 
and flock to other fields." 

Truly, "the teacher's calling must be elevated in 
public esteem" before we can hope to have an adequate 
supply of "competent and well trained teachers" 
recruited from the higher grade of young men and 
women. 

THE PROFESSIONAL STATUS OF THE TEACHER 

What may be said of the professional status of the 
public school teacher? 

School teaching is not generally recognized as a 
profession in the sense that law, medicine, theology, 
dentistry, optometry, professional nursing, and chirop- 
ody are recognized. 

Teachers themselves do not generally regard their 
vocation, and with too many of them, their avocation, 
as a profession. There are those who would like to 
see their occupation "elevated in public esteem to the 
dignity of other professions." Dr. Frank E. Spaulding, 
dean of the School of Education, Yale University, 
says: "The occupation of teaching — as a whole we 
are not justified in calling it a profession — is being 
deserted in the present and shunned for the future." 
As we have read before, Governor Harding of Iowa, 
pleads that, "Teaching should be made a profes- 
sion. Make of teaching a profession, so that men 
and women can enter it for a life's work and be able 
to say, — T am a teacher, and proud of the profession.' " 



2£2 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

Teaching may not lay claim to the dignity and 
recognition of a profession until it is so recognized by 
law. 

In the first place, there will have to be definite 
prescribed preliminary educational and technical stand- 
ards of preparation required before one may be ad- 
mitted to the profession of teaching. These standards 
should be high and they should be strictly and impar- 
tially maintained. No one should be permitted to 
teach, except as a cadet or student under the immediate 
supervision of a professional teacher, until after receiv- 
ing the diploma or license of a professional teacher. 

This license should be valid for life, or until revoked 
in a legal manner for unprofessional conduct, and it 
should be valid in any school district in the state in 
which granted, as are the licenses in all the professions. 

In all the professions when a candidate has once 
complied with all the requirements, and has been 
granted his license to practice his chosen profession, he 
is never again required to be examined as to his quali- 
fications for continuing to practice his profession. 

While with school teachers it is assumed by school 
authorities generally that a teacher is not qualified 
to teach school until she takes an examination and 
successfully passes it, notwithstanding the fact that 
she furnishes evidence of having taught successfully 
in an adjoining city or county in the same state; and 
not only that, she is frequently required to take peri- 
odical examinations in the city or county where she 
has taught successfully right along, to determine 
whether she is qualified to continue to teach ! 

It does seem ridiculous to expect a school teacher 
at regular and frequent intervals to answer sets of 



STATUS OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER 223 

questions upon all the studies of a school curriculum, 
any number of the subjects she does not teach and 
never expects to teach, while a lawyer, a physician, or 
a preacher is not required to answer a "knotty" ques- 
tion pertaining to their respective professions without 
first "taking it under advisement." But if a school 
teacher fails to locate Mount Kenia from memory, and 
to give its altitude, it counts 10 against her qualifica- 
tion as a teacher. 

In all the professions the fact that one continues to 
practice his profession, is accepted as prima facie 
evidence that he is legally qualified to practice that 
profession. 

Taking the country over, the great majority of 
school teachers have little or no professional prepara- 
tion for leaching, but they are licensed to teach school, 
and so far as the legal restrictions go, they enjoy all 
the rights and privileges enjoyed by those who have 
gone to the time and expense of making adequate prep- 
aration for the profession of teaching. 

For illustration let us take the educational qualifica- 
tions of the teachers in Illinois for the school year 
ending June 30, 1921. There were 38,279 teachers, 
supervisors, principals, and superintendents employed 
in the public elementary and high schools of the State. 
Of this number 5,052 were graduates of college; 1,171 
were graduates of both normal school and college; and 
9,146 were graduates from normal school; a total of 
15,369 or 40 out of 100, who have had the minimum 
educational training that is regarded requisite for 
a professional teacher; and but 10,317, or 27 out of 
every 100, who have had professional training for 
teaching. This leaves a grand total of 22,910, or 60 out 
of every 100, teachers who had been licensed, and 



224 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

employed to teach in the pubhc schools of Illinois who 
had had little or no preparation; and of this number 
only 9,925 were even graduates of a four year high 
school. Illinois may be taken as fairly representative 
of the whole country. 

In any profession, successful experience, and a de- 
gree of maturity of mind are regarded as essential for 
the highest proficiency in that profession. 

In Illinois of the 38,279 teachers employed, 9,822, 
or 26 out of every 100, were beginners without previous 
experience; and of these, only 911, or less than one out 
of ten, were graduates of a normal school or college. 

Of the total number of teachers, 38,279, 18,353, or 
43 out of every 100, had taught two years or less; and 
65 out of every 100 had been teaching five years or 
less; and only 35 out of every 100 who had taught 5 
years or over, and who may be classed as mature 
teachers of experience. 

Again, of the 38,279 teachers, 14,950 had taught but 
one year in the same district; 26,596 teachers, or 70 
out of every 100, had taught 5 years or less in the same 
school district, and only 11,683, or 30% had taught in 
the same district for 5 years or more. When it is 
remembered that a city large or small constitutes a 
school district, and that the tenure of the teacher's 
position in the cities is more stable than in the small 
towns, villages, and rural districts, it reveals the 
transient tendency of teachers in those districts. 

Thus it is shown that Dr. Bagley's statement, 
"The great bulk of our teachers are immature, transient, 
and ill-trained," is based upon a knowledge of the 
facts. 

One reason why we have only about 40% of an ade- 
quate supply of well-educated and well-trained teach- 



STATUS OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER 225 

ers to man our schools, is that the various states 
recognize and license immature, ill-trained, and ill- 
educated persons to teach school, and the mature, 
well-trained and well-educated teacher is thereby 
placed in competition with the "immature, transient, 
and ill-trained," and in many instances forced out of 
the occupation of teaching. 

These "immature, transient, and ill-trained," yet 
legally licensed teachers, lower the standard of salaries, 
and thereby crowd out the "mature, well-trained, and 
relatively permanent teachers" who surely are so 
needed in the schools. 

There is another restriction placed upon the occupa- 
tion of teaching that has its effect in causing young 
women "students to avoid the normal schools and 
teacher-training schools," and that is that a woman 
teacher may not marry without forfeiting her right 
to continue her career as a teacher. In most places a 
woman teacher automatically forfeits her position when 
she marries, in many places married women are not 
eligible to a position in the public schools. This 
unjust and unreasonable discrimmation against mar- 
ried women comes from the mistaken notion that the 
position of teacher is in the nature of pubhc patronage, 
and that the positions in the schools belong of right to 
the dependent unmarried women of the community; 
and the further feeling that if a teacher has a husband, 
he should support her. The qualifications of the 
teacher, her ability to render efficient service, and the 
interest of the children, are not taken into the account. 

In the professions a woman may marry, raise a 
family, continue in the practice of her profession, 
discontinue it for a time, and return to it at her con- 
venience or pleasure without losing her status in her 



226 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

profession. There is not a single valid professional 
reason why the same rights and privileges should not be 
accorded the woman teacher. There is a hopeful indi- 
cation that this unjust limitation upon the natural 
rights of women teachers will be removed. The supreme 
court of Wisconsin has rendered a decision that a 
school board in that State can not discriminate against a 
married woman teacher. This decision is not only 
just and right, but it is clearly in the interest of public 
policy. 

There is nothing gained by trying to cover up the 
fact that every normal minded woman innately hopes 
sooner or later to marry the man of her choice and to 
have a home of her own. It is but natural that a 
young woman should be reluctant to choose a vocation 
which she feels may lessen the probability of realizing 
her cherished hope. It is quite likely that a school 
teacher may not wish to teach after she marries but 
she has the right to know that should she ever wish to 
teach, she may return to her vocation and start right 
in where she left off without her eligibility being called 
in question. 

Many of the positions now occupied by "immature, 
transient, and ill-trained teachers," might just as well 
be filled by "mature, well prepared, and relatively 
permanent teachers" if this arbitrary and unreason- 
able limitation were removed. 

During the period of the shortage of teachers result- 
ing from the demands of the war, married women and 
ex-teachers were urged to take positions in the schools. 
Superintendents and patrons were glad to avail them- 
selves of the services of these experienced teachers, 
and there was no complaint of their lack of educational 
qualifications or teaching skill. But, these experienced 



STATUS OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER 227 

teachers were granted temporary, or emergency certifi- 
cates, and they were employed as substitutes. These 
worthy women, many of them having received their 
education and technical training in the art of teaching 
in the state normal schools, were not professionally 
recognized by the school authorities of their own 
state. Even in those cases where a woman teacher's 
'disability' has been removed by death, or by a divorce 
court, she will find it necessary to go to school and 
brush up in her studies, and pass an examination for 
another license before she may qualify as a teacher. 
This humiliation is not imposed upon married women 
in any other profession. And, no doubt, this one 
restriction deters many young women from choosing 
teaching as a career who might otherwise do so. 

Verily, "Teaching should be made a profession!" 
The states should raise the standards for entering the 
profession to the dignity of a profession. Promising 
young men and women should be encouraged to enter 
the vocation of teaching as a career, and every reason- 
able inducement should be offered to successful teach- 
ers to remain in it. If more consideration were given 
to the question of why "The occupation of teaching 
is being deserted in the present and shunned for the 
future," it might not be necessary to multiply normal 
schools in the vain hope of training new teachers in 
sufficient numbers to take the places of those who 
leave the ranks every year. So long as school teaching 
is permitted to be looked upon as a convenient, tem- 
porary makeshift avocation, just so long will the great 
bulk of our teachers continue to be "immature, tran- 
sient, and ill-prepared." 

There is another reason why "students carefully 
avoid the normal schools and teacher training schools and 



228 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

flock to other fields." And that is the normal schools. 

The normal school does not appeal to high school 
students strongly in comparison with other institutions; 
practically none of the boys, and but few of the girls 
from four year high schools choose, voluntarily, to go 
to normal school. The average normal school is located 
on the outskirts of some "Main Street" country town 
which offers little or no attraction to the imagination of 
youth. These vigorous young people naturally feel 
that when they have the opportunity to go away to 
school, they prefer to go where there are some advan- 
tages outside the school. 

Then again the traditional course of study, and the 
peculiar type and character of the instruction, do not 
appeal strongly to ambitious youth. The impression 
prevails that the major part of the work in a normal 
school is a critical and "twaddling" review of the 
subjects they have studied in the elementary and 
high schools; the filling of volumes of note books and 
plan books; tedious hours of practice teaching under 
critic teachers, where the conditions are more like 
"playing school" than actual school room conditions; 
and that there is very little progress made in broader 
scholarship. 

The result of this feehng is that the normal schools 
are attended mainly by young women whose homes are 
in the vicinity of the school, and from the rural districts 
and the country high schools. This would be a good 
thing for those communities if the graduates of the 
normal schools returned to their home sections to 
teach; but unfortunately, the majority of the grad- 
uates of these country normal schools go to recruit the 
places of those teachers who drop out of teaching in 
the cities and larger towns. 



STATUS OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER 229 

Thus far we have considered some of the conditions 
that tend to hinder young people from choosing the 
vocation of teaching as a career. 

What about the professional status of those who 
are regularly engaged in teaching? 

Most city school systems are organized in imitation 
of large industrial enterprises. The Board of Educa- 
tion corresponds to the board of directors of the cor- 
poration; the superintendent, to the general manager; 
the principal, to a foreman; and the teachers, to the 
operators of the machines, or the ordinary workmen 
in the various plants ! 

If public school teachers are consigned by those 
who are responsible for the organization of our public 
school systems, to running lathes turning out finished 
materials, for a definite number of hours a week at a 
uniform wage scale, why in the name of common sense 
should not these skilled pattern workers join a union 
of other pattern workers in the same industry .f^ 

It has become quite common to think and to speak 
of school teachers in about the same terms that are 
used by executives, superintendents, and foremen of 
industrial enterprises in discussing labor, help, and 
employees. Unfortunately, the fathers and mothers, 
and the public generally have come to share in this 
organization and systemization estimate of the teach- 
ers' humble position in the scheme of education. 

One of the most serious objections that teachers 
have to their calling is the lack of professional recogni- 
tion by the school authorities. They must perform the 
one service the schools were organized and are sup- 
ported to render, — teach the children everything they 
are taught in school, bear the responsibility for their 
conduct, their health and moral training, and yet, 



230 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

they are accorded no voice in making the course of 
study which thej^ must follow, in the choice of the 
schoolbooks they must use, in the formulation of the 
rules and regulations they are required to obey, in 
determining the working conditions, and in planning 
the organization of the school system of which they 
are so large and vital a part. 

In many of these bureaucratic school systems a 
school teacher has about as much voice and initiative 
in framing the educational policies, and the rules and 
regulations of the school system as a "buck" private 
soldier has in the organization and movements of his 
brigade. If she has ideas of her own in regard to 
teaching, the course of study, or the management of 
the schools, and has the temerity to give voice to them, 
she is likely to receive a rebuke, and if repeated, a 
reprimand with the admonition that she is hired to 
teach school and to attend strictly to her own busi- 
ness; and that whenever her suggestions and advice 
are desired, she will be asked to give them. Instances 
are known where some of the most competent and 
satisfactory teachers to pupils and patrons, have 
"failed of re-election" for no other reason than that 
they had too many ideas of their own; and these ideas 
proved "troublesome" to the autocratic management. 

One school board in a well known school district 
has followed the policy for years of employing no 
teacher living in the school district, or who might have 
friends or relatives living in the district. The board of 
education has spent a great deal of money, public 
school funds, for traveling expenses of its superintend- 
ent when skirmishing over a wide area to find teachers 
to fill the vacancies in its corps of teachers, and to 
keep from filling any of these vacancies with teachers 



STATUS OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER 231 

who had been educated in their own schools, and had 
gone to college or normal school and prepared them- 
selves for teaching. This particular school district 
prides itself upon its superior schools and the high 
character of its families, and yet, it refuses to avail 
itself of the services of the sons and daughters of its 
families and the product of its own schools. Why.f^ 
All the excuse or pretext given, so far as learned, is that 
the school board and its superintendent wished to be 
relieved of the embarrassment of any local influence that 
might be brought to bear in the interest of a local 
teacher or of a candidate for a position of teacher. 
The school officials admit that it is for their own comfort 
and peace of mind, and not for the interest of the 
children or of the community that this unjust and 
expensive discrimination has been practiced. There 
is a latent suspicion that the real reason is that the 
teachers may have no influential friends or relatives to 
protect them from arbitrary and whimsical treatment, 
and that a teacher may be "fired" by the superin- 
tendent and his teachers' committee and nothing 
further heard of it. This arbitrary power has a sub- 
duing disciplinary effect upon the teachers. 

In a high school district a number of the popular 
and efficient teachers were no tfied just before the end 
of the school year, that they would not be re-elected 
for the following school year This arbitrary action 
seemed so flagrantly unjust that the pupils and their 
parents took the part of the wronged teachers, and 
demanded an explanation. 

The principal of the school and the members of the 
high school board assumed the attitude that their 
arbitrary action was no concern of the patrons. That 
these teachers being employees of the high school 



232 LOOKING TO OUK FOUNDATIONS 

board, and their time of employment having expired, 
the board was at hberty to hire other teachers to take 
their places, and that neither the patrons nor the dis- 
missed teachers were entitled to any explanation. 

These most competent and successful teachers were 
forced to leave the positions, in which they had served 
the community so long and so satisfactorily, under a 
professional cloud from which a frank statement of the 
facts would have cleared them. There was much 
feeling wrought up over the affair. Public meetings 
were held and largely attended by influential and 
liberal minded citizens, and a number of fair and 
reasonable proposals were made to try to induce the 
members of the board to give their reason for their 
summary action, all to no purpose. 

The belief prevails among those in a position to 
sense the situation that there were no valid reasons 
for the board's action; not even a plausible pretext. 

These are not extreme nor rare examples of arbi- 
trary exercise of autocratic authority. They serve to 
illustrate the professional status of the school teacher in 
two representative systems of schools. 

Is it any wonder that "The occupation of teaching 
— as a whole, we are not justified in calling it a pro- 
fession — is being deserted in the present and shunned 
for the future!" 

The notion of the factory or army organization of 
public school systems will have to be abandoned, and 
the teacher raised to her rightful place in a mutual co- 
operative organization. 

This question of the social and professional recog- 
nition of school teachers is not a matter of sentiment. 
It goes to the very foundations of our public schools. 
It has a far-reaching effect in determining whether or 



STATUS OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER 233 

not we are to have an adequate supply of competent, 
well-trained teachers of high ideals of their calling 
to fill the positions in the public schools. It is, therefore, 
a most important economic question. 

"Teaching at its best is a fine art, which is to say 
that it is the personal and human elements that are 
fundamental." Professional recognition of the teacher's 
rightful place in the school organization, will do much 
to bring out those "personal and human elements that 
are fundamental." 

Personal pride in ones calling, and the feeling that 
one's services are recognized and appreciated, are the 
most potent incentives to eflficient effort. 

It had been our intention to discuss the economic 
status of the school teacher, but this subject has been so 
fully covered under the heading of "Teachers' Salaries" 
that it hardly seems necessary to go into it again. 

It has been our purpose to emphasize the fact that 
while inadequate salaries paid school teachers was one 
reason, it was not the only reason why the occupation 
of teaching is "being deserted in the present and 
shunned for the future." 



CHAPTER VIII 

The School Book Question 
a preliminary historical sketch 

The school book question has been and is the most 
mischievous unsettled educational question before the 
people today. 

A way back in 1837, Horace Mann, in a lecture said: 
"A great mischief — I use the word mischief, because it 
implies a certain degree of wickedness — a great mischief 
is suffered in the diversity and multiplicity of our school 
books. . . .All manner of devices are daily used to 
displace the old books, and to foist the new ones. 
* * * Publishers often employ agents to hawk their 
books about the country, and I have known several 
instances where such a peddlar — or picaroon — has 
taken all the old books of a whole class in school, in 
exchange for his new ones, book for book, — looking, of 
course, to his chance of making sales after the book has 
been established in the school for reimbursement and 
profits, so that at last the children have to pay for what 
they supposed was given them." 

Mr. D. C. Heath in his carefully prepared "Address 
Delivered before the School Book Publishers' Associ- 
ation, 1899" says: "For three years following our Civil 
War the demand for school books created active rivalry 
in the trade, and new houses grew up rapidly. * * * 
The inevitable result of the rapid augmentation of new 
houses and new publications was that all the older and 

234 



THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 235 

larger publishing houses increased their field agency 
force, until in 1868 there were at least 300 traveling 
agents, with a competent house force, and these agents, 
both traveling and resident, were in continual conflict 
at every point where an introduction of new books was 
even contemplated." 

"The system of 'even exchange' was launched, 
and gifts of money and donations of all kinds promised 
in order to secure a favorable consideration of the books 
offered by each of a dozen or more houses through their 
respective agents. This made 'book-fights' and 'book- 
fights' made victory costly to the successful publisher, 
and even more costly to the unsuccessful one." 

In 1871 the School Book Publishers' Board of 

Trade, with a constitution and By-Laws was formed. 

"The Board was organized," says the American 

Publisher's Circular of 1873, "to deal with the system 

of introductions." 

"Contrary to general expectations, at the time of the 
organization of the School Book Publishers' Board of 
Trade, the first year's result proved the scheme a 
complete failure." 

"General suspicion of dishonesty of purpose and of 
practice prevailed among the members. * * * Members 
wanted agents to watch their interests in the field. 
Territory was being stolen from them, they said, and 
they must have adequate means of defense. As the 
work developed, suspicions and jealousy grew apace." 

The Publishers Weekly, in one of its numbers of 
1877, says: "When the Board of Trade was organized, 
the agents and their consequences must have been 
costing the publishers and the public between two and 
three millions a year — and this was not the worst of it. 
By forcing unnecessary 'introductions,' they compelled 



236 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

changes so frequent as to seriously interfere with the 
education of the children; all sorts of means were 
used to corrupt the teachers and school officers into 
permitting these introductions; politicians utterly 
ignorant of the school needs went into school boards 'on 
the make'; and publishers, feverish to introduce their 
books at any cost, were swindled by sharp directors, 
(school board members) and virtually by the agents 
themselves." 

Between 1877 and 1884 there were other organi- 
zations of the school book publishers — The Syndicate, 
the Four House Agreement and The School Book 
Publishers Association all having for their object the 
control and regulation of the introductory part of the 
school book business — "The School-book Publishers' 
Association of 1884, lasted until 1890. The abuses it 
was intended to correct became as active as before, and 
"finally," as Mr. Whitney says, "all of the inventive 
genius of the publishers failed to find a way out of their 
troubles. The field became more demoralized than 
ever." 

"General Barnes said that the firm of A. S. Barnes 
and Company spent $50,000 in the Nebraska fight, and 
had less holding there at the end than at the beginning 
of the contest. These experiences doubtless led to the 
union of school-book houses known as the American 
Book Co." 

The modern development of the school book pub- 
lishing business may be considered as dating from the 
organization of the American Book Company in 1890. 

It was the evident intentions of the master minds 
of the competing school book publishing houses who 
merged their respective companies to form this great 
corporation, thus to put an end to the destructive 



THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 237 

competition that had become so conscienceless and 
predatory, and, what meant much more to these gentle- 
men, so expensive. 

Unfortunately, however, the American Book Com- 
pany was made up mainly of the men from these 
principal competing school book companies who 
brought into the new organization all the traditions 
of the destructive competitive methods of those old 
warring interests. 

From the beginning, however, it seemed evident 
that the American Book Company, intended to 
dominate and control the school book business of the 
country. 

In addition to the publishing houses formally 
announced as entering into the consolidation, there 
remained outside for some time, some other school 
book houses operating as "independent" houses which 
were suspected and openly accused of being sub- 
sidiary companies of the American Book Company, — 
Butler Sheldon and Company, and later the Werner 
School Book Company among others. 

It soon became apparent that the American Book 
Company proposed to keep up the same tactics that had 
been followed by the individual houses before the 
consolidation against the independent outside com- 
peting school book houses. The agents of the American 
Book Company served notice upon the agents of out- 
side houses that the American Book Company was 
entitled to 85% of the business, and unless this pro- 
portion of the business in any school book adoption 
was given to the American Book Company, it would 
fight for it. It continued the practice of making it so 
expensive to any competing company that undertook 
to displace its books, that that company would not be 
likely to attempt to do it again. 



238 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

For the first few years the agents of the American 
Book Company boasted of a "clean" list in many of 
the states, counties, and cities of the country, meaning 
by this that all the books in use were of their own 
publication. The outside companies had to scramble 
among themselves and with the so called "independent" 
companies for the "crumbs from the rich man's table." 

About 1895 the Werner Company of Akron, Ohio, 
threw down the gauntlet to this strident giant! This 
little company started a war on the "trust" as it called 
it, and upon all school men who were suspected of 
being friends of the American Book Company. 

It was a "merry war" while it lasted. The agents 
of the Werner Company, for the most part experienced 
agents of one or another of the old houses, who had been 
left out when the American Book Company was formed, 
went from city to city and from town to town and 
"even exchanged" its books for the American Book 
Company's books on as many subjects as it had to 
offer. This company tried to induce other houses to 
join with it in its warfare so they together might have 
a complete list of books to offer. 

In the autumn of 1895 this "Werner— A. B. C." 
even exchange warfare ended as suddenly as it began. 
Announcement was made that the American Book 
Company and the Werner Company had reached an 
agreement to cease their warfare on each other's hold- 
ings. 

The Werner Company's school book department 
was organized into a separate corporation under the 
title of the Werner School Book Company and was 
operated as an "independent" school book company 
until formally taken over by the American Book 
Company. 



THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 239 

During this time the outside competing school 
book houses were trying to find themselves. The agents 
of the American Book Company were aggressive and 
alert both in offensive and defensive warfare. 

Three Typical State Adoptions 
the missouri state school book adoption — 1897 

This was the situation up to about the time of the 
approaching notorious state adoption of a uniform 
list of school books for use by all the school children 
of Missouri, except in the cities of St. Louis, Kansas 
City, and St. Joseph, for five years, in the spring of 
1897. There had been a state adoption in 1892 in 
Missouri. 

In anticipation of this adoption there was an organ- 
ized plan evolved to make a contest against the Amer- 
ican Book Company and its so-called "satellites" for 
the five-year monopoly of furnishing school books to 
the State of Missouri. 

The following four school book publishing houses 
joined their forces for this contest: D. C. Heath & 
Company, Ginn & Company, Silver, Burdett and 
Company, and Allyn and Bacon. These four houses 
and their agents, attorneys and other helpers were de- 
signated as the "Boston Bunch" by their competitors. 

Through the good offices of a prominent attorney, 
the Hon. William J. Stone, ex-governor, and later 
United States Senator, was approached and engaged 
to use his influence to secure the adoption of the 
list of books popularly designated a slate, prepared 
and agreed upon among the principals of the four 
houses mentioned. 

Some idea of the strategic importance of this adop- 
tion is afforded by the fact that each of the houses was 



1240 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

represented by one or more of its principal owners or 
managers who remained on the ground throughout 
the long dreary weeks the campaign dragged along. 
Mr. Edgar O. Silver, president of Silver Burdett & 
Company; Mr. W. S. Smythe, Western Manager of 
D. C. Heath and Company; Mr. T. W. Gilson of Ginn 
& Company; and Dr. Geo. W. Bacon of Allyn and 
Bacon. 

Opposed to these were the American Book Com- 
pany, the Werner School Book Company and Butler, 
Sheldon and Company, generally designated by their 
competitors as the "Trust." 

Mr. L. M. Dillman, then assistant manager of the 
Chicago field of the American Book Company was in 
charge of this campaign. Mr. W. J. Button repre- 
sented the Werner School Book Company and Mr. 
J. N. Hunt did valiant service for Butler Sheldon and 
Company. 

The members of the State Text Book Commission 
were, Mr. John R. Kirk, State Superintendent of 
Schools; Mr. James M. Seibert, State Auditor; Mr. 
Edward C. Crow, Attorney General; Mr. W. D. Dob- 
son, President of the State Normal School at Kirks- 
ville; and Mr. T. E. Spencer, Superintendent of Schools 
at Marshall. 

There were quite a number of other school book 
houses with their numerous agents on the ground to 
push their claims for their respective books. 

In addition to the principals and their accredited 
agents, there were a numerous company of more or 
less prominent educators of the state who took a more 
lively interest in the campaign than mere educational 
zeal would have demanded of them ! 



THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 241 

Jefferson City was the place where the stage was 
set for the playing of this farce of a school book adop- 
tion, or as a wit termed it, a school book "auction." 

The call had been made for bids in compliance with 
the conditions prescribed by the Missouri school book 
law, and the contending hosts were assembled. 

There probably never was a more tedious or tire- 
some school book adoption than the Missouri adoption 
of 1897! 

Jefferson City was as dull and uninteresting a town 
as one can imagine; the hotels were as common-place 
as the town, there was nothing in the way of recreation, 
and no places of interest to visit except the peniten- 
tiary and the State Capitol. 

The school book men had little to do beyond keeping 
an eye on the maneuvers of one another. Three of the 
five members of the Text Book Commission were in 
Jefferson City, there was little or no incentive to see 
Mr. Dobson, and it was but a day's trip to see Mr. 
Spencer who was the only member of the commission 
who manifested interest in considering the comparative 
merits of books offered for adoption. 

Some of these agents early discovered that Mr. Sei- 
bert might be found at a pretty regular hour at a 
certain quaint old barrel house where the hospitable 
German proprietor mixed a concoction which soon 
became known as a "Seibert" punch. That school 
book man regarded the day well spent when he en- 
joyed the privilege of buying a round of "Seibert" 
punches, with Mr. Seibert as the honored guest. 

Two baseball nines were chosen from among the 
school book men and some lively games were played 
with no time limit for the games; and there was an 
occasional raffle of a gun, a camera, or other article 
by way of diversion. 



242 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

The school book houses not m on either poHtieal 
"deal" kept their men working like Trojans. They 
were talking their books industriously and bringing 
all the influences to bear on any situation that offered 
a possible opening for the favorable consideration of 
their respective books. 

It was confidently believed by the "Boston Bunch" 
that the triumvirate, Stone, Seibert, and Crow would 
dominate the adoption and that their slate would 
win. 

It was equally well understood that the American 
Book Co. and its allies would put up a stiff fight, and 
that they had two votes to start with, — and needed but 
one more but that they regarded that one as doubtful. 
The first intimation that there was a "fly in the oint- 
ment" was brought home to the "Boston Bunch" when 
the Text Book Commission announced that "all bids 
had been rejected, and new bids were called for!" 

This move was regarded by the wise men of the 
"Boston Bunch" as ominous of impending danger — for 
up to this time they had felt that they had the advan- 
tage of lower prices. The movement was thought to 
be for the purpose of giving the American Book Com- 
pany and its so called "satellites" an opportunity to 
revise their prices. While it gave to tliem the same 
opportunity, they did not like this turn in affairs. 

One of the most prominent gentlemen of the "Bos- 
ton Bunch" was said to have fainted following the 
announcement . 

From this time on the contest grew more and more 
tense. Both sides had their intelligence departments. 
Every move of the opposition was noted and promptly 
reported. 



THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 243 

All the publishers submitted new bids at revised 
prices after which the contest developed rapidly. 

The nervous tension was exhausting. The weather 
was hot by day and sultry at night. Some of the men 
became quite ill as the weeks dragged along. The day 
set for the adoption was drawing near, and the "Bos- 
ton Bunch" was feeling confident of the outcome as all 
reports for more than a week had been most favorable. 

All at once, there came a clap from a clear sky. It 
was reported that Mr. Seibert had sent word to the 
principals of the "Boston Bunch" that it would be 
necessary for political reasons to take care of "Bill" 
Phelps, known as the powerful lobbyist for the Mis- 
souri Pacific Railroad and a leader in the Democratic 
party in Missouri; and that it would take a sub- 
stantial consideration to secure him and his influence. 
They were told plainly, so it was reported, that unless 
this additional amount was raised or guaranteed their 
proposed slate could not be "put over." 

A council was called late at night in the sleeping 
room of two of the principals in the old McCarty House. 
It happened to be the hottest night of all the hot nights 
in Jefferson City! It was claimed that at least three 
of these dignified gentlemen were practically devoid of 
clothing. While the meeting was a memorable one it 
was most informal. These gentlemen sat on the floor 
in the dark and carried on their solemn deliberations in 
whispers. 

After having entered into a solemn and definite 
agreement with Hon. William J. Stone for a specified 
amount of money, and according to reports, the sum 
was expected to run into five figures, that he would 
carry through the slate of the reform {?) publishers, 
and after this agreement had been made they were 



244 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

called upon to reduce the prices of their books, it was 
now demanded, not by Mr. Stone but by a member 
of the Text Book Commission, that they raise and turn 
over an additional sum to "take care of Bill Phelps." 
The amount demanded was reported to have been 
substantially the same as Mr. Stone was to receive! 

Be that as it may, the result of the deliberations of 
the gentlemen of the so-called "Boston Bunch" was that 
they declined to pay any more than the amounts agreed 
upon, and if it was necessary to take care of Mr. 
Phelps, it was up to Mr. Stone and his lieutenants to 
do it. They were willing to carry out in good faith 
their part of the agreement but that was as far as they 
would go. 

This decision was conveyed by the messenger who 
had brought the ultimatum. Of course, these impor- 
tant doings were reported to Mr. Stone and an appeal 
was made to him to come to Jefferson City at once 
and to carry out his part of the agreement. 

Here the scene shifted from Jefferson City to St. 
Louis. Word had been passed around to the efiFect 
that the officials of the American Book Company had 
declined to furnish any more money for the Missouri 
campaign. This report served to raise the hopes of 
the "Boston Bunch." It was good news if true. 

But just a day or two before the day of the adoption, 
the report came from St. Louis that there had been a 
meeting of officials of the American Book Company 
at St. Louis; and that Mr. Dillman had boarded the 
nine o'clock train for Jefferson City. 

This news was startling. It was surmised that fol- 
lowing their refusal to furnish money, that a similar 
proposition had been conveyed to Mr. Dillman and 
that he had called a meeting of the officials, and that 



THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 245 

he had laid the case before them and urged that they 
"see the game through." The fact that Mr. Dilhnan 
was on his way to Jefferson City, seemed to indicate 
that probably he had not pleaded in vain. A trusted 
watcher was sent to the depot to "cover" Mr. Dill- 
man's movements. 

Sure enough, Mr. Dilhnan was on the train, but he 
did not get off at Jefferson City. He remained on the 
train when it pulled out for Kansas City ! 

At that time, the night train from Kansas City for 
St. Louis reached Jefferson City about three o'clock 
in the morning. The train from St. Louis for Kansas 
City, on which Mr. Dilhnan was, left Jefferson City 
about midnight. Watchers were stationed to keep 
an eye on the train for St. Louis, — possibly Mr. Dilhnan 
would return on that train. 

In response to the appeal of his clients, Mr. Stone 
was in Jefferson City looking after his fences. Evi- 
dently he had found everything to his liking for when 
it was about time for the train for St. Louis to pull in, 
he was seen walking toward the station accompanied 
by Attorney General Crow! He evidently was expect- 
ing to take the train for St. Louis. 

When the train pulled in, who should get off but 
Mr. Wm. H. Phelps of Carthage! He was met and 
greeted by Attorney General Crow. 

Mr. Dillman was reported to have been on the 
train but he did not get off, but continued his journey 
toward St. Louis. 

Mr. Stone who had left Mr. Crow and started for- 
ward to board the train, saw Mr. Phelps alight, and 
walk off with Attorney General Crow. 

Mr. Stone, thereupon, decided that he would not 
go to St. Louis on that train. He sensed important 
business in Jefferson City, that morning. 



246 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

The watchers followed Mr. Phelps and Attorney 
General Crow. They were reported to have gone 
dh'ectly to the home of State Auditor Seibert. Mr. 
Seibert met them on the front porch, where they entered 
into earnest conversation. 

This fact was reported to Mr. Stone. He, scenting 
trouble, went to the house and joined the group. 

It was reported, that he called Attorney General 
Crow to task for accompanying him to the train to 
see him off, and there meeting and greeting "Bill" 
Phelps and walking away with him. To which Attor- 
ney General Crow was reported to have replied that 
he would just as soon be seen walking with Bill Phelps 
as with Bill Stone! 

The outcome of this early morning conference on 
the porch of State Auditor Seibert was the announce- 
ment by a messenger from Hon. William J. Stone that 
the fight was lost. 

Phelps had defeated Stone! 

There immediately began a scramble among the 
different houses for the salvage from the wreck. 

The American Book Company having two votes 
from the beginning — with Auditor Seibert and Attor- 
ney General Crow — the "Trust," so called, had four 
votes, and its slate was adopted. 

There is no way of knowing the actual amount of 
money paid for this adoption, or how it was divided. 
The only basis the losers had for estimating approxi- 
mately was from the amount demanded of them for 
which they were assured their list of school books 
would be adopted. 

Of this there can be no doubt, the amount was sub- 
stantial enough to cause a political scandal in the state. 



THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 247 

It was over this adoption of a uniform series of 
school books for the pubHc schools of Missouri that the 
political and personal quarrel started between Mr. 
Stone and Mr. Phelps; and was the occasion of "Bill" 
Phelps's oft quoted recrimination, "Yes, Bill Stone and 
me both suck eggs, but Stone is mighty careful to hide 
his shells." 

This scandalous school book "auction" was so 
thoroughly aired at the time that the State Uniformity 
School Book Law was repealed before the adoptions 
under it expired. 

One outstanding fact revealed by the skeleton 
sketch of the Missouri school book "Auction" of 1897 
is that the educational interests of the children, the 
financial interests of the parents or the comparative 
merits of school books, received scant, if any, consider- 
ation. 

This Missouri State adoption of 1897 was a pivotal 
adoption. The question whether or not the destructive 
competitive abuses which had grown up with the 
school book business, and which the organization of 
the American Book Company was hoped would cor- 
rect, would be abandoned, or continued. 

The Missouri State adoption determined that all 
the known policies and practices were to be continued, 
and new ones invented in the prosecution of the school 
book business. 

It has been claimed that one of the prominent 
school book publishing houses as a result of that adop- 
tion in Missouri completely changed its promotive 
policy; that it determined henceforth to enter no 
alliances with any other school book publisher; that 
it would "play a lone hand"; and that it proposed to 
"fight the devil with fire." 



248 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

This publishing house is said to have grown and 
prospered enormously from that day to this. 

While clinging outwardly to its early traditions, it 
bears the reputation of systematically and covertly 
using every known device for winning school book 
adoptions. It is believed that all the known abuses 
of the school book business might with propriety be 
named in a "thesis" and "nailed on the door" of this 
school book publishing house. 

The Indiana, and the Tennessee State 
Adoptions of 1899 

The school book adoptions in these two states have 
a peculiar interest in the development of policies of 
the schoolbook publishers for the reason that they 
may be regarded as an aftermath of the Missouri book 
fight of two years before. 

As mentioned before, there was at least one of the 
schoolbook publishers that had been so keenly disap- 
pointed with the fiasco in Missouri that it was resolved 
never to permit itself to be beaten by the same tactics 
again. 

In the meantime, some of the other independent 
publishers had assumed a more militant attitude. As 
the time drew near for the Indiana state schoolbook 
adoption, these more aggressive publishers prepared 
for the contest in that state. 

It may be of interest to explain how an otherwise 
progressively educational state came to be handicapped 
with a state compulsory uniformity schoolbook law ! 

It is claimed that the American Book Company 
had held sway over the schoolbook business of Indiana 
mainly through the energetic efforts, and personal 
popularity of one of its agents in that state. For some 



THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 249 

reason there was a break between this popular and 
influential agent and his employers, and he was dis- 
charged, or quit. 

In a spirit of retaliation, so it is reported, this 
agent turned his energies and personal influence toward 
securing the passage of a most drastic state compulsory 
uniformity schoolbook bill with very low fixed prices 
for all elementary school books. He is said to have 
furnished the ammunition for the fiery speeches in the 
legislature emphasizing the outrageous prices paid to 
the schoolbook "Trust" by the poor people of Indiana, 
etc. 

The State Compulsory Uniformity School Book 
Bill was passed and became a law, and with some 
changes and modifications has remained the schoolbook 
law of Indiana. 

The prices fixed by this retaliatory measure were 
so low that practically all of the schoolbook publishers 
declined to offer their books for consideration. It was 
under this contingency that the Indiana School Book 
Company came into existence. It was made up mainly 
of men of local influence, and its financial backing 
was somewhat conjectural. Be that as it may, it man- 
aged to collect a miscellaneous list of school books, 
and to secure the contract for most of them for use in 
the public schools of Indiana for five years. It was 
just before the contracts on some of these books expired 
that the call for bids for furnishing arithmetics, geog- 
raphies, and writing books, was sent out early in 1899. 

The contest was understood to be between the 
"field" which meant all the outside schoolbook bid- 
ders, and the Indiana School Book Company. 

The members of the State School Book Commission 
at that time were: 



250 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

Governor, J. A. Mount; State Superintendent of 
Public Instruction, D. M. Geeting, but before the day 
of the adoption of schoolbooks, Frank L. Jones who 
had been elected to succeed Mr. Geeting; W. E. Stone, 
Vice President of Perdue University; Joseph Swain, 
President of Indiana State University; W. W. Parsons, 
President State Normal school; W. H. Hester, Super- 
intendent of schools, Evansville; J. N. Study, Superin- 
tendent of Schools, Fort Wayne; and David K. Goss, 
Superintendent of schools, Indianapolis, 

These gentlemen were all ex-qfficio members of the 
School-Book Commission, and of the State Board of 
Education as well, and were not appointees of the 
governor. It would be difficult to suggest a fairer 
method of selecting the members of a state school book 
commission that would insure the choice of capable 
men whose single interest would be the educational 
interests of the children of the state. 

In reviewing some of the incidents of that particular 
state schoolbook adoption, it is far from the intention 
of the writer to question the motives or the conduct of 
any member of the school book commission; there is 
no question but they did the best they could do under 
the conditions. 

The schoolbook campaign had not progressed far 
before the school book men became convinced that the 
choice of books would not be based upon the compara- 
tive merits of the books offered in competition alone. 
An experienced book agent could sense the situation 
better than he could describe it. 

Two of these schoolbook agents were canvassing 
the situation one evening in a room at their hotel. 
They represented the same publishers, and they had 
made the rounds of all the members of the commission, 



THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 251 

and had made what was supposed to be their final 
presentation of the merits of their books to each 
member. They were both inclined to the opinion that 
they had been accorded sympathetic hearings, that 
they had made convincing talks for their books, and 
that they noted some favorable comments and inti- 
mations on the part of each member of the commission. 
In short, they felt that their chances were to say the 
least, not unfavorable. 

Late that night, so the story goes, one of these 
gentlemen rather startled his companion with the cold 
statement that he was fully convinced that they were 
not within a mile of the real situation in that school- 
book adoption. He said that he did not believe that 
as valuable a contract as this one was would be per- 
mitted to be awarded without more of a contest than 
had come to the surface; that he was convinced that 
there were influences outside the commission that 
would dictate that adoption, and that the merits of 
the books would be a secondary consideration in the 
final adoption of books. 

The gentleman stated further that there was one 
man that he believed could tell him where to find the 
key to the situation and that he proposed to undertake 
to get that information if possible, before he took 
another step in the campaign. 

He left the next morning on an early train, and did 
not return till late that night. But when he found his 
friend and associate, he reported to him that he had 
found the key that would unlock the situation; that 
on the following evening at 8 o'clock an unnamed 
gentleman would rap three times on their door; that 
he must admit him before speaking to him; that he 
had the assurance from a source that he could not 



252 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

reveal that this gentleman could put them on the 
right track; and that if they would only follow his 
directions he would secure the adoption of their books 
for them. 

The prominent and influential gentleman called at 
the appointed time and was admitted in the manner 
agreed upon. It did not take but a few minutes for 
this visitor to convince these schoolbook men that he 
held the key to the schoolbook adoption in Indiana at 
that time. The visitor's proposition went far beyond 
the limit of authority usually granted to an agent of a 
corporation, and for this reason the proposition had to 
be referred to the executive head of the company. 

After some necessary negotiations and conferences 
the deal was consumated, and as this publishing house 
did not have a series of books on another subject called 
for in the advertisement for bids, another prominent 
publisher was taken in on the deal, "just to help 
along." 

The understanding at the time was that there was 
a stipulated amoimt to be paid over to meet immediate 
and contingent expenses, and a commission of 10% on 
the net sales of the books in the State of Indiana for 
the full period of the adoption. 

After this arrangement was entered into, these 
schoolbook men had a comparatively comfortable time 
of it. They, of course, had to do some clever acting, 
and to keep up a show of anxious activity, but their 
appetites were good and they rested well at night. 
They were as certain that their books would be adopted 
as one can be sure of "a sure thing" in business or poli- 
tics. 

On the night before the adoption, these schoolbook 
men were called upon by appointment at their room 



THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 253 

at the hotel by the influential gentleman, and one of 
his powerful associates, a politician and banker. They 
stated that they were rather uneasy over the way 
matters had developed; that there was a prominent 
man in Indianapolis who controlled one vote on the 
textbook board, or was in a position to control it and 
that vote was the only one of their fellows that they 
were not quite confident of "lining up." They stated 
further that for fifteen hundred dollars, they could take 
this man in on the deal, and by doing so settle the 
matter beyond the shadow of a doubt; that while they 
did not demand that it be done, they did feel that there 
was an element of risk in not doing it; and that they 
thought that it was worth fifteen hundred dollars to 
feel assured that the deal would go through the next 
day without a hitch. It was agreed that the Indianapo- 
lis gentleman should be taken care of. The callers 
thanked their host, and assured him that he and his 
companion could go to bed and sleep as late as they 
cared to for their books would surely be adopted in 
the morning, — and they were adopted. 

Another interesting move on the part of these 
influential advisers, served to confirm the faith of these 
schoolbook men that these gentlemen had the situation 
well in hand. Mr. Geeting was a member of the State 
School Book Commission at the time the bids were 
opened, but his term of office as State Superintendent 
of Public Instruction was nearing its close. Mr. Frank 
L. Jones had been elected to that position, and by vir- 
tue of his office he would succeed Mr. Geeting on the 
School Book Commission. There had been some little 
doubt expressed as to how Mr. Geeting might vote on 
the adoption of schoolbooks and whether these gentle- 
men could hold him in line. While they felt that he 



254 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

would vote with them, yet they were forced to admit 
that he had never committed himself. They did feel 
confident that Mr. Jones would vote right if he should 
have the opportunity to do so. For this reason, it was 
agreed that the safest thing to do, was to postpone the 
adoption of schoolbooks until after Mr. Jones was 
installed in office, and was seated as a member of the 
Textbook board. 

Accordingly, after the bids had been opened and 
read, a motion was made, seconded and carried, that 
the adoption of schoolbooks be postponed. It was 
explained in support of the motion that it would take 
considerable time to examine all the books that had 
been submitted for consideration with sufficient care 
to enable the members of the commission to vote in- 
telligently (?) on the merits of the books. The date 
for the adoption was postponed from some time in the 
winter until the 12th of April, on which date the adop- 
tions were made according to schedule. The books 
adopted were the Cook — Cropsey series of Arithme- 
tics, and the Frye Geographies; the New Era Copy- 
books were adopted on the same day, but that adoption 
was understood at the time to be a separate transaction 
and backed by another influential politician. 

It is significant that the Arithmetics and the Geog- 
raphies in this adoption went to two of the pubhshing 
companies that had gone down to defeat with the 
"Boston Bunch" in Missouri two years before; and 
that the name of their formidable competitor did not 
receive honorable mention even in a state where 
formerly it had held practically undisputed sway. 

As a little sidelight upon the amount of pressure 
that may be exerted from outside influences in a State 
Compulsory Uniformity schoolbook adoption, this 
one incident is given: 



THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 255 

A prominent gentleman, who while not officially 
connected with the Text Book Commission at the time 
of that adoption, was familiar with what was going on, 
in speaking of that adoption years afterward, made 
the statement that while that schoolbook adoption 
may not have been the direct cause, he felt confident 
that it was the beginning of the physical breakdown of 
one of the members of that Commission. He related 
the fact that he had called at the home of this member 
of the Commission at his home on the evening of the 
day of the schoolbook adoption. He found that gentle- 
man walking the floor, wringing his hands, and uttering 
distressed exclamations. Through his kindly ministra- 
tions he finally succeeded in quieting his mentally dis- 
turbed host, and in reply to the visitor's solicitous 
inquiry as to his disturbed state of mind, he is said 

to have replied, "Mr. , how can I ever explain 

or justify my vote of today!" 

This is but an intimate glimpse behind the scenes 
of a normal State Compulsory Uniformity Schoolbook 
adoption under the most favorable conditions. There 
could not be found a higher average type of men in 
official life anywhere than the men on the State Board 
of School Book Commissioners of Indiana in 1899. 

The root of the evil is inherent in the State Compul- 
sory Uniformity Law. There never was, nor never 
can be, such a thing as a fair and just State Compulsory 
Uniformity School Book adoption. It makes not a 
particle of difference how the schoolbooks are selected 
and adopted, the adoption of the schoolbooks, and the 
enforcement of their use, is unfair to the children in the 
schools, and to the parents of the children. The 
successful bidders for the five year contracts and their 



256 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

local influential "Kiboshes" are the only beneficiaries of 
a State Compulsory Uniformity Adoption of school- 
books. The people of the State of Indiana ought to 
repeal their infamous State Compulsory Uniformity 
School Book Law; and while they are about it, they 
should abolish the State Board of Education in so far 
as its authority over the rural, elementary, and high 
schools is concerned. 

The public elementary and high schools should be 
placed under the general management and direction, so 
far as the state is concerned, of the State Department 
of Education; of which the State Superintendent of 
Public Instruction is the duly elected representative 
of the people, and the official head. 

The State Board of Education, if there is one, should 
be restricted in its authority and its activity, to looking 
after the various state educational institutions, the 
Universities, Normal Schools, Schools for the Blind, 
the Deaf, etc. 

Keep the control, direction, and management of 
the public schools in the hands of the people and their 
duly elected representatives where they of right belong. 

The Tennessee Adoption, 1899 

As mentioned before, the future policy of one of the 
self styled independent school book publishers was 
settled upon as one of the results of that notorious 
Missouri State School book "Auction" of 1897. 

This 'determination to "Fight the devil with fire," 
settled the future policy of the school book business, 
especially in State and County uniformity adoptions. 

This meant that the American Book Company 
would continue to follow the same mercenary exploita- 
tion practices that had been used by the several school 



THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 257 

book publishers which had combined to form the 
American Book Company. 

It was the avowed purpose of the principals of the 
old publishing houses most active in the formation of 
the American Book Company, to correct the abuses 
that had so demoralized the school book business and 
that had put it on about the same ethical plane, in the 
public mind, as the lightning rod business. 

But it made the tactical blunder of claiming that the 
bulk of school book business of the country belonged 
to it by right of possession. 

The combined "holdings" of the several school book 
pubhshers forming the American Book Company, 
together with the "holdings" of those companies whose 
business was purchased outright, and its subsidiaries, 
gave it a practical monopoly. 

It made it known to all competitors that it was 
its purpose to retain and maintain by militant methods 
its bulk of the school book business. 

This manifest determination to brook no interfer- 
ence with its purpose and plans in the way of competi- 
tion from the "little fellows" outside of the combine, 
led up to the decision of the principals of the four school 
book publishers called in derision the "Boston Bunch" 
to throw down the gauntlet before this haughty giant. 
The Missouri State adoption fight of 1897 was the out- 
come of this challenge. 

It was evident to those familiar with the inner 
workings that that first battle between the so-called 
"Trust" with its subsidiaries, and the independent 
houses was lost because a majority of the principals 
did not have the nerve to "back up" their winning 
hand. 



258 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

One of these houses determmed upon an aggressive 
poh'cy. In the Tennessee campaign of 1898-9, this 
school book pubHsher avenged his "drubbing" in the 
Missouri adoption by signally defeating his powerful 
adversary. 

The generally credited report of that school book 
adoption is about as follows: — 

There were two brainy and aggressive school book 
men active in the promotive work of this particular 
outside school book publishing house in those days. One 
of them had taken an active part in the Missouri State 
compulsory school book "Auction" of 1897. 

He and his associates gained some expensive but 
valuable experience in that Missouri Campaign. They 
learned how an exclusive compulsory school book adop- 
tion may be lost, and profited by that lesson. They 
found out how that State exclusive Uniformity School 
book adoption was won. Incidentally, in the Tennessee 
campaign, they made practical application of what 
he had learned. While he went down to defeat with 
his fellows of the "Boston Bunch" in Missouri in the 
bidding for the grade list, he "went it alone" in that 
State, in the "Auction" for high school books. That 
he had gotten hold of the right "system" was demon- 
strated by the fact that he secured the adoption of a 
goodly number of the high school books in Missouri 
for his school book publishing Company. 

But the adoption of high school books was not all 
he got out of it. He is reported to have made some 
acquaintances and to have established some political 
connections that proved helpful to him and his com- 
pany as time went on. 

In casting about for fresh fields where they might 
practice their newly acquired art, this school book man 



THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 259 

and his talented associate found out that the poor old 
State of Tennessee was sorely in need of a state-wide 
exclusive compulsory school book law. He and his 
associates decided that Tennessee must be rescued 
from her wretched plight; and it was agreed that his 
talented and ambitious associate should go down into 
darkest Tennessee as a benificent missionary to procure 
the passage of a state-wide exclusive Compulsory 
School Book Law providing for the machinery for the 
systematic pillaging of all the patrons of the public 
schools of Tennessee. This "Mission" was a complete 
success, and most satisfactory to this resourceful gentle- 
man and his self complacent associates. 

The State Uniformity School Book Law was enacted 
and heralded all over the State as an administration 
measure. It is a significant and interesting fact that 
this Text Book Law provided for both a Text Book 
Commission and a Text Book Sub-Commission. 

The Governor was ex-officio chairman of the 
Text Book Commission, the State Superintendent, 
Secretary, but all other members of both Commissions 
were appointed by the Governor ! 

The Sub-Commission was made up of educators, 
and was a sop to the school people who were practically 
a unit in opposition to the passage of the bill. The 
duty of these educational experts of the Sub-Commis- 
sion was to "examine" and to "recommend" books to 
the Text Book Commission. 

The handiwork of the designing, sinister school 
book exploiter is evident in this political spoils make 
up of the Text Book Commissions responsible to the 
Governor. Whoever gets the Governor gets the spoils! 

It was generally commented upon at the time and 
beheved since that both the Text Book Commission 



260 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

and the Sub-Commission were appointed and expected 
to recommend and to adopt the majority of the books 
from one favored publisher's list of books. 

The Text Book Commission carried out its part of 
the program fully. 

The school men on the sub-commission were not so 
subservient and manifested a disposition to perform 
their sworn duty. The sub-commission submitted a 
carefully prepared report recommending a list of books 
and giving its reasons for recommending each book or 
series of books. 

Mr. Wharton S. Jones, a prominent and highly 
respected school man, was chairman of the Text Book 
Sub-Commission. He and his associates declined to be 
dictated to against their better judgment. For this 
reason the Text Book Commission paid little or no 
attention to the recommendations of the Sub-Commis- 
sion. Only eight (8) of the thirty-five (35) recom- 
mendations of the sub-commission were adopted by 
the Governor and his Text Book Commission. The 
sub-commission's first choice recommendations of 
books were ignored on readers, advanced speller, geog- 
raphies, language lessons, English grammar. United 
States history, physiologies, algebra, writing books, 
rhetoric, agriculture and civil government. 

The members of the Text Book Commission were, 
Governor Benton McMillin, President; State Super- 
intendent Morgan C. Fitzpaterick, Secretary; Captain 
Thomas H. Paine, Jackson; Captain C. S. Douglas, 
Gallatin and A. D. Wharton, Nashville. 

The members of the Sub-Commission were: — 

Wharton S. Jones, Memphis, Chairman; Charles 
Mason, Morristown, Secretary; W. N. Billingsley, 
Spencer; F. M. Bowling, Christiana, and J. C. Stinson, 
Lewisberg. 



THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 261 

The books adopted by Governor McMillan's 
Text Book Commission : 

Stickney Spellers, Stickney Readers, Frye Geog- 
raphies, and Wentworth Arithmetics (about 80% of the 
total list!) ; and McGee's History of Tennessee, Metcalf . 
Grammars, Lee's United States History, and Lippin- 
cotts, Physiologies. 

It is worthy of note that none of the winning com- 
pany's former associates in the "Boston Bunch" in 
the Missouri Campaign got a single book adopted in 
Tennessee ! 

The generally credited story of the signal defeat of 
the American Book Company by the stripling David, is 
quite sunple. 

There lived in Missouri a popular and astute politi- 
cian who had been in Congress for a number of years 
and who later became Governor of Missouri. 

The Governor of Tennessee had been in Congress 
with the gentleman from Missouri, and they were 
credited with being close friends. 

By means of the intimate political connections 
established in Missouri late in the campaign in Missouri 
in 1897, the business associates of the resourceful 
gentleman who was sent as missionary to Tennessee 
were favorably introduced to the Congressman from 
Missouri who was the intimate friend of the former 
Congressman from Tennessee and at that time Gover- 
nor of Tennessee. 

From this Missouri politician the "missionary" 
was said to have procured a most favorable introduc- 
tion to the Governor of Tennessee ! 

The Text Book bill was evidently written or dic- 
tated by this talented school book missionary providing 



262 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

for a State-wide compulsory Uniformity school book 
adoption by a Text Book Commission composed of 
the Governor and his appointees ! 

The bill was duly passed notwithstanding the united 
opposition of the school men of the State. The Gover- 
nor was said to have taken an active interest in the 
passage of the bill. 

The members of the Text Book Commission, and 
the Text Book Sub-Commission were duly appointed. 

The Text Book Commission was ready and waiting 
to adopt the list of books; but the Sub-Commission 
had failed to recommend the books it was expected to 
recommend ! 

This made the situation rather embarrassing for 
the Governor and his commission and somewhat com- 
plicated for the campaign manager of the to be favored 
school book publishing company. But his strategic 
wit came to his rescue and served to relieve the em- 
barrassment of the Governor and his Text Book Com- 
mission. 

This school book man proposed that the governor 
and the members of his Text Book Commission ad- 
journ to Castalian Springs, a quiet and secluded spot, 
where they might meditate and deliberate undisturbed 
by other book agents, or by the observation of too 
critical eyes. Of course the Text Book Commission 
adjourned to meet at Castalian Springs ! 

Notice was solemnly served upon all school book 
publishers, their agents and representatives that none 
of them must attempt to invade the sacred precincts of 
Castalian Springs, nor to communicate directly or 
indirectly with the governor, nor any other member of 
the Text Book Commission upon penalty of having 
his books excluded from possible consideration. 



THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 263 

It was announced that should the Text Book Com- 
mission in the course of its examination of books find it 
at all likely that a school book man could enlighten the 
governor or anj^ member of his Text Book Commission 
on the merits of his book, that school book man would 
be invited to Castalian Springs. 

Whether or not any other school book man was 
summoned to appear before the governor and his 
Text Book Commission was not reported, but it was 
generally believed that the campaign manager for the 
company who was destined to win the bulk of the 
business, was in Castalian Springs or in close com- 
munication with the Governor and his Commission 
during their sessions. 

The announcement of the list of adoptions was 
made from Castalian Springs ! 

There was a noticeable difference between the 
Missouri school book "Auction" and the Tennessee 
adoption. In Missouri the principal contenders for 
the monopoly were given a chance to win the adoption. 

In Tennessee, the deal was sewed up so tight, that 
the opposition could not find one little loose end of a 
thread to work on to get in on it, or at it, even. 

As stated before the deal was sewed up so tight that 
it baffled the skill of the veteran fine workers of that 
day. Naturally, there was a great deal of criticism of 
the Text Book Law and those responsible for it. The 
action of the Text Book Commission was generally 
regarded as a public scandal. Governor McMillan's 
reputed active part in that Compulsory Uniform State 
School Book adoption is claimed to have injured him 
politically, and to have been a factor in keeping him 
from going to the United States Senate. 



264 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

Otber Governors have felt the bHghting conse- 
quences of their too active participation in school book 
adoptions. 

The Missouri Compulsory Uniformity State School 
Book "Auction" of 1897, detennined the means and 
methods to be employed in school book adoptions there- 
after. All the old abuses and destructive competitive 
practices were to remain in full force and effect as our 
lawyer friends would say. 

The Tennessee Text Book Law and the school book 
adoption under it at Castalian Springs in 1899, and the 
Indiana compulsory Uniformity school book adoption 
of the same year were the beginning of a new epoch 
in the school book exploiting business. 

The arrogant American Book Company with all 
its resources and its traditional devices had been 
defeated on its own ground and with its own weapons 
wielded by stronger arms and bolder strategic maneu- 
vers than the old veterans had ever before encountered. 

A powerful competitor had arisen directed and 
managed by vigorous and ambitious young men 
acquainted with all the traditional methods and devices 
of the older school book agents. 

The fact that one of their number had fought a 
finish fight with their dreaded competitor and had won 
a decisive victory, gave to the other struggling inde- 
pendent school book publishers more confidence in their 
ability to meet the American Book Company in open 
competition. 

This young giant waxed strong and has grown and 
prospered in the land. It has been and is the most 
formidable competitor of the American Book Com- 
pany. The phenominal growth of this company is 
due to its virile organization. It has followed a consis- 



THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 265 

tent policy of rewarding brains and demonstrated 
ability of the men of its field force. These men of suc- 
cessful exploiting experience and ability bring into their 
organization new ideas, and new ideas add to the 
resourcefulness of the organization. 

On the other hand, it has been said of the American 
Book Company organization that it did not pennit a 
new idea to enter its official cranium for twenty years 
after its formation. It continued to rely upon its 
traditional methods and campaign tactics. 

Its competitors understanding its tactics, were 
enabled to compete with it with increasing success. 
There are today not less than thirty schoolbook pub- 
lishers in open and active competition for something 
like twenty million dollars of school and college text- 
book business. 



CHAPTER IX 

County Uniformity Adoptions 

We have undertaken to give an insight into the 
motives that seem to dominate the choice of books in 
state adoptions. It may seem strange but neverthe- 
less the statement is not likely to be questioned, that 
these abuses become even more vicious in the smaller 
adoption units. 

This is certainly true of the county uniformity 
adoptions in those states where this pernicious expedi- 
ent has been chosen in the place of state adoptions. 

The county adoptions in Iowa and South Dakota 
have been in the main a disgrace to the fair name of 
those states. After the scandalous state adoption in 
Missouri, the Legislature repealed the Text Book law 
providing for state uniformity of school books, but it 
passed a law providing for county uniformity. All 
the evils arising out of state uniformity were passed on 
down to the counties. The only difference being that 
the stakes being relatively smaller the "expense 
accounts" of those bidding for the county monopoly 
of furnishing the school books are necessarily less, but 
not relatively so. 

A county uniformity adoption requires about the 
same amount of agency time and effort as a state 
uniformity adoption. The only noticeable difference 
is that in a state adoption, the principals or the part- 
ners of the publishing houses, usually direct the cam- 
paign, while the regular agents with local agents, a 

266 



COUNTY UNIFORMITY ADOPTIONS 267 

local attorney, county central committeeman of the 
dominant party, or some county official, conducts the 
county campaign. This working force must be multi- 
plied by the number of counties up for adoption. The 
larger text-book campaigns, usually have one of their 
experienced county adoption men stationed at a con- 
venient steam heated hotel either in the state or just 
across the line in an adjoining state to manage or direct 
the several county campaigns. These campaign mana- 
ger's principal function is to see to it that the agent does 
all that can be done to get the votes needed to win the 
adoption; and that he does not pay more than the 
adoption is worth. 

Iowa county adoptions have had the reputation 
for years of being the "rottenest" school book adoptions 
in the whole country. 

Up to 1919, the County Boards of Education were 
made up of the following educational experts: "The 
County Superintendent, the County Auditor, and the 
members of the Board of Supervisors, shall constitute 
a County Board of Education." 

We take the precaution of quoting the School 
Laws of Iowa, published in 1915, so that our statement 
may not be questioned outside of Iowa. 

The law provided that upon petition signed by one 
third of the directors in any County, other than those 
in Cities and towns, and filed in the office of the County 
Superintendent, asking for a uniform series of Text- 
Books in the County, it became the duty of the County 
Board of Education to provide for submitting to the 
electors at the next annual meeting, the question of 
County Uniformity of Text-Books. 
r- About fifty-five (55) out of a total of ninety-nine 
(99) counties in Iowa have voted for county uniformity. 



268 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

This leaves forty-four (44) counties as open counties 
in which the school directors of each school district 
adopts the school books for their school district. 

Of the Forty-four (44) so called open counties, the 
most of them have county uniformity practically, as 
the larger exploiting houses have put their agents into 
them and secured the adoption of a list of books made 
up of their own publications, or have combined with one 
or more houses and made up a "slate" usually with the 
assistance of the County Superintendent or the assent 
of that official. 

There are reported to be about thirty-eight (38) 
counties in Iowa up for adoption this year, 1921. It 
is a forgone conclusion that substantially all the books 
will be changed in more than one third of the counties 
of Iowa this year. 

It may be worthwhile to describe a county adoption, 
which may be taken as fairly representative. 

Those school book publishers who make a specialty 
of exploiting their books in the counties keep a record 
of all these counties, the dates of the last adoption, 
the books adopted, the publishers represented on the 
lists, when the adoption expires, and the personnel of 
the County Board of education, their friends on the 
board and those members whom they were unable 
to control. They have kept in close touch with their 
local influential friend who has come to be styled a 
"Kibosh," by competing agents. 

Through their agent and their "Kibosh," they have 
kept in touch with the situation ever since the last 
adoption. If the publisher failed, or was not as suc- 
cessful as he felt he should have been, his agent, his 
friends and his "Kibosh," have worked to undermine 
the books of his competitors, and also to cidtivate the 



COUNTY UNIFORMITY ADOPTIONS 269 

County Board of Education. If he had won out at 
the last adoption, these same producers have kept a 
sharp eye upon the situation to keep their organization 
intact. 

The "Kingpin" on the County Board of Education, 
up to March 18, 1919, when the new law went into 
effect, was usually the county auditor. In a few 
instances, the county superintendent would be strong 
enough or daring enough to assume leadership on the 
Board of Education. 

At any rate, the County Board of Education was 
political in its make up and organization. 
^ The exploiters always prefer to deal with a political, 
rather than an educational board, text-book commis- 
sion, or text-book committee. The members are more 
amenable to influence ! 

With this in mind it is easy to surmise what in- 
fluences dictated the make up of the County Boards of 
Education. 

The leading companies contending for the Iowa 
county uniformity business, have had experienced, 
forceful, and resourceful men, capable of handling these 
county situations, however delicate or complicated 
they might be. 

Some of the smaller houses that feature county 
adoptions, make their preliminary arrangements 
through their managers, who gained their experience 
while serving as agents of some of the older and larger 
publishing houses. 

The practice has been for the state agent to arrange 
for a meeting between the county auditor or some other 
leader, and one of his company's big men, usually in 
Chicago. 



270 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

The preliminary approach to these prospects was 
to provide entertainment of any nature that a large 
city offers and that was likely to appeal to the inclina- 
tions and tastes of the visitor. 

This unusual entertainment served to break down 
any conventional barriers that may have existed 
between the host and his guest, and to make them feel 
more free to discuss the subject of the coming adoption 
in the visitor's county. The experienced, versatile 
school book representative, at the opportune time, 
opens up negotiations by calling attention to that 
school book adoption in "your county." 

He diplomatically states that "Our agent informs 
me that you are in a position to control that adoption 
and we want to win that adoption this time; last 
time the county superintendent thought that she could 
swing it and we made the mistake of depending upon 
her, and our competitors beat us. We want readers, 
arithmetics and geographies. Can't you "put them 
over" for us? You, of course, will need to have some 
help and we shall expect to pay for that and whatever 
is left, you can keep for yourself." 

He states the sum he thinks each of these subjects 
is worth and the total amount for all of them. 

This member of the County Board of Education, 
not specially interested in education, interested in 
politics, kindly disposed toward his host and not in 
politics for his health, after satisfactory terms are 
agreed upon, enters into a deal by which he undertakes 
to deliver a majority of the votes of the County Board 
of Education for this buccaneer publisher's books. 

When he returns to his home county seat, he car- 
ries in his vest pocket a list of the books he will work 
for and vote for, for use in the schools of his county 
for the next five (5) years ! 



COUNTY UNIFORMITY ADOPTIONS 271 

Mr. versatile and experienced school book man has 
some friends who are pretty decent fellows, and he 
proposes to let them in on the deal. He will ask one, 
how much he would be willing to give for language 

books in County, lowa.^^ Another one, 

United States history .f* Physiologies? Spellers.'^ Copy 
books.'' 

It would not be unusual for this gentleman to carry 
home a complete slate. 

This is what is popularly called the "line up," 
which the "field," meaning the agents of all the other 
companies not in on the deal, must meet. It not infre- 
quently transpires that brains triumphs over boodle 
and the slate is broken ! 

The County Superintendent possibly was prevailed 
upon to make a stand for a "square deal" and under 
the direction of some keen aggressive book agent, he 
springs a surprise upon the auditor and his "line up" 
by proposing and putting through a list of books 
chosen upon their merits as best suited to the schools 
of the County. Sometimes the "square deal" and 
"Trust" plaint is worked by a super-righteous rival 
company, as a smoke screen to hide an even more 
vicious deal made and entered into long before the other 
one, and with powerful influences that have to be 
reckoned with, before an adoption can be made. 

In the earlier days, these contending companies 
would "fight to the finish," but a disposition to get 
together has been manifested in later years. A com- 
promise is arranged between the opposing "Kiboshes" 
by which the big houses divide the list, leaving a few 
crumbs for the little fellows to fight over. 

After one of these County adoption book fights, 
the manager of one of the competing school book 



272 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

publishers was reported to have complained to the 
head of another publishing house, that he thought that 
he ought to know that his agent had used unfair means 
of competition out in County, Iowa. 

Naturally this gentleman did not wish his agent, 
who had been successful in this particular adoption, to 
be under suspicion of using any undue influence in 
securing adoptions for his books, 

"Tell me all about it," requested this head of the 
publishing house. 

"Your agent is reported to have had a bottle of 
whisky up in his room at the hotel and to have served 
drinks to certain members of the county board at 
frequent intervals during the campaign." 

"Do you mean to tell me that my agent had a 
bottle of whisky.?" 

"Yes, Sir!" 

"Well, I don't know why he had but a bottle, for I 
sent him six bottles myself!" 

It is needless to remark that this was long before 
the Volstead Act went into effect. 

There are one or two of the smaller school book 
houses that specialize on Iowa counties and with 
fairly good success. Their agents are as shrewd and 
smooth as the best of them. There are no fine scruples 
in their methods; their schemes are planned with cold 
blooded calculation, and everything goes up to the 
limit of the price fixed for each adoption. If these 
houses or either of them had a complete list they would 
be formidable competitors of larger houses. 

While the new law in Iowa changes the member- 
ship of the County Board of Education from a political 
to an educational make up, there is not much likelihood 
that the results will be any more satisfactory. 



COUNTY UNIFORMITY ADOPTIONS 273 

The same temptation remains and the same preda- 
tory interests will compete for the business. The 
parents of the children who attend the schools will be 
pillaged just as systematically and ruthlessly by the 
publishers through the educational County Boards of 
Education as by the old political line up arrangement. 

It is the unnecessary, artificial monopoly of fur- 
nishing the school books for five years to all of the 
schools of the county that is the root of the evil. 

South Dakota is another State that has been ruth- 
lessly pillaged and in the main by one of the big 
publishing houses. 

The State representative of this house is a unique 
personality. He has practically dommated the school 
book adoptions in that State for years. The state poli- 
ticians, the county politicians and the school politicians 
are his friends, and they are the constructively active- 
in-his-interest sort of friends. 

The make up of the County Text Book Committee is 
unique. If this particular state representative had had 
it made to measure it could not have fitted his purpose 
better. The county superintendent of schools, the 
president of the board of education of all independent 
districts, the county auditor, states attorney, county 
commissioners and one person from each commission- 
er's district, who shall be selected by the members of 
the school board of such commissioner's district present 
at a meeting to be called by the county superintendent, 
shall constitute the County Text-Book Committee for 
the purpose of selecting and adopting all the text- 
books needed for use in the public schools in the county. 
The county superintendent of schools shall be the 
chairman of such committee. The county auditor shall 
be secretary, and a majority of such committee shall 



274 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

constitute a quorum for the transaction of business. 

In South Dakota, the law makers in their wisdom, 
or more likely at the suggestion of some school book 
man or his "Kibosh," made the county superintendent 
of schools, the only member of the County Text-Book 
Committee, likely to champion the cause of the school 
children and their teachers for whose sole use the books 
are to be selected and adopted, chairman of the com- 
mittee thus "bottling him up" by parliamentary usage. 

The mere size of these County Text Book Commit- 
tees in South Dakota, is staggering. The meeting of 
the committee assumes the dignity of an assemblage. 
The largest room in the Court house is requisitioned 
for its meetings. 

The number of members on one of these County 
Text Book Committees discourages the attempt of 
any but the two or three favored school book houses 
from competing for this county business. The number 
of free sample copies required and the time required 
to canvass each member of the committee excludes 
most all of the school book publishers, except the 
largest of them, and this was the evident intention of 
the law and those responsible for it. 

Another provision of the law reveals the fine handi- 
work of the friends of these wily school book publishers. 
The next section of this law protecting and perpetuating 
the pillaging of the people, provides that all the County 
Text Book Committee meetings in the state, shall be 
held on the same day, June 22! 

This simple provision means that all school book 
houses that cannot afford or that do not have enough 
agents to put a force in each of the counties of the 
state would better "stay out." This was the purpose 
of the Law. The practical result is that the people 



COUNTY UNIFORMITY ADOPTIONS 275 

of South Dakota are left a prey to the larger and more 
voracious school book houses. 

The method of these houses is simple. They have 
their local "Kiboshes" in each county who see to it 
that the predetermined "slate" of books has a champion 
with a dependable "floor manager," on each county 
committee. This is called in book agency exploitation 
organization. This little group of picked leaders all of 
one mind with a definite object to accomplish, directs 
the thought of the members of the big political Text- 
Book Committee into "practical channels." One good 
experienced floor manager, having the ear and eye of 
the sympathetic chairman, is all that is necessary to 
"put over" the slate! 

It must be apparent to any business man that the 
method of selling school books is very expensive, and 
the worst of it is that the managers of these school 
book publishers can not "check up" very well to deter- 
mine just how much these county adoptions actually 
cost. They do know to a penny how much is charged 
up to expenses, and what the cost is to them. 

If the agent reports to his manager that it will take 
one thousand dollars to carry a specifically named 
county, he has no means of determining whether that 
agent pays one thousand dollars or seven hundred or 
any less amount. It is not beyond the pale of possi- 
bility for the agent and the "Kibosh," while framing 
up a deal whereby the "Kibosh" undertakes to land 
the adoption of the books slated for the agent's pub- 
lishing house, to make a little private deal to split the 
expense money in a manner satisfactory to both! 

And why shouldn't he.^^ If his employer sends him 
to secure an adoption by shady methods and furnishes 
him the money necessary to secure the votes, there 



276 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

should be no scruples on his part, so he may reason, 
why he should not get his share of it. The employer 
is placing an unjustifiable temptation before his agent. 

It has long been a matter of open comment and 
wonder among school book men as to how well fixed 
financially some of these fine workers in county adop- 
tions are, owning fine farms, bank stock, breeding 
cattle and swine, and enjoying the reputation of being 
substantial men of affairs, on the meagre salaries of 
ordinary school book men. A little side light upon the 
methods of these "expert workers" is shed by the 
following incident as related by one of the substantial 
members of one of these South Dakota County Text- 
Book Boards. 

There had developed pretty keen opposition to the 
established order of things as planned in this particular 
county. There was a manifest disposition of some of 
the members to vote for the best books. This situation 
was quite disturbing to the campaign manager. There 
was one of these deft workers in emergency situations, 
in a state not far distant in the employ of the large 
publishing house whose holdings were threatened, and 
the campaign manager had him brought in to secure 
the votes necessary to carry the adoption. He arrived 
upon the scene of action promptly as the day of adop- 
tion was near at hand. Probably acting upon the 
advice of one of the "loyal" members of the County 
Text Book Committee, he "approached" this substan- 
tial but doubtful member of the Committee in the 
manner related by this member afterward. This mem- 
ber lived on his farm but a short distance from the 
county seat. 

The deft worker found this member of the Text 
Book Committee up about the barn or possibly over 



COUNTY UNIFORMITY ADOPTIONS 277 

at the sheep sheds. He was soon located and the caller 
introduced hunseK and stated his business. He had 
little to say, regarding his company or the merits of 
the books it was offering, but he did say that he did 
wish to make sure of his vote. 

This deft worker's attention was attracted by a 
flock of sheep and he became enthusiastically inter- 
ested in them. He did not try to hide the fact that 
he was a farmer himself and that he was a breeder of 
fine sheep. He said that he wanted one of those lambs 
and inquired whether this Text Book Committee 
member would sell him one of them. Upon this farmer 
Comittee member's reply that he might sell him one 
or more of them if he wished, he was reported to have 
said, "Well, I'll tell you what I'll do. I'll give you a 
hundred dollars for one of the lambs crated and 
delivered at the express office." 

The farmer member did not bite. He did say that 
it was a big price to pay for a lamb, and suggested that 
he wait until after the school book adoption and then if 
he wanted a lamb he would sell him one. The farmer 
member in relating the incident afterward, said that 
he might have had his "pick" of his lambs for nine 
dollars! But he never called for his lamb after the 
adoption. Of course, in this particular instance the 
proposition did not work, but it might be astounding 
if it were known how many of these and similar offers 
were and are accepted. 

Had this particular offer been accepted the deft 
worker's expense account would have shown at least 
one hundred dollars for special agency services and the 
farmer agent would have been ahead at least one lamb ! 

This fellow was active for years as the recognized 
accredited agent of one of the largest school book 



278 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

publishers. He made no pretentions of ability to dis- 
cuss the merits of his books. It was generally under- 
stood that he bought and paid liberally for most of the 
business he got, and furthermore he would talk openly 
about his experiences and what he was forced to pay 
certain fellows. Yet so far as reported he was never 
indicted or arrested. 

One of the best known school book men in the 
country and one of the knowing ones, who stands high 
in his company, has made the statement again and 
again that notwithstanding the fact that his company 
has been singularly successful in working county 
adoptions, and has managed to secure and to hold 
the most of the county uniformity business in Iowa 
and South Dakota, his company had not made a dollar 
out of that business. 

This is accounted for by the enormous expense 
incurred in building and maintaining the necessary 
organizations in the counties, and the agency expense, 
sample copies, and exchanges at every five year adop- 
tion. If his company had enjoyed the monopoly for 
five years, it had just about recovered from the expense 
of securing the adoption when the five year period was 
up, and it had the expense of another campaign to meet. 

His company must meet all comers in competition, 
and be ready to pay as much to hold its business as 
its strongest competitors are willing to pay for it, or 
run the risk of losing its holdings. Unless the books 
are changed the re-adoption is not nearly so profitable 
as the first five year adoption, for the reason that the 
pupils are all practically supplied with books, counting 
those used books passed on from pupils who have com- 
pleted a book to one who will begin it. The company 
can count upon receiving replenishing orders only. 



COUNTY UNIFORMITY ADOPTIONS 279 

Whenever a new adoption of books is made for a 
period of five years, the pubHsher sells as many books 
the first year of the adoption as he does in the four 
remaining years of the monopoly, and the longer the 
books remain in use, the less the number of new copies 
purchased each year, on account of the old copies of 
the books handed down and passed on from pupil to 
pupil. This explains why the publishers are willing 
to offer liberal terms of exchange for these old books. 
They wish to gather them up and get rid of them, and 
sell a new one in the place of each. 

Illinois does not have a County Uniformity School 
book law, but there has been an independent move- 
ment in the state fostered by the school book agents 
for county uniformity by agreement among the inde- 
pendent school districts. Early in this movement 
there were some disgraceful county "fights" because 
the American Book Company through its agents, 
demanded eighty-five per cent of the business. Unless 
this fair proportion of the school books were adopted 
from its list, it threatened to put a "wrecking crew" 
into the county and canvass the districts and "secure" 
the adoption of its books in as many school districts 
as possible. Monroe County was the battle ground for 
one of these disgraceful school book fights. 

This braggadocio attitude deterred the more timid 
publishers from favoring county uniformity for awhile, 
but later under the leadership of Ginn & Company, 
the independent publishers began to accept the chal- 
lenge and after one or two finish fights, that arrogant 
company began to show a disposition to enter the 
county adoption contests under agreement to abide 
by the decision of the Text Book Committee. 



280 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

These county uniformity adoptions in Illinois are 
as bad as county adoptions under legal sanction. The 
prime motive is the systematic pillage of the school 
patrons. 

The specious pretext given out is that uniformity 
makes it easier to systematize the work and to outline 
a course of study. Anyone who knows anything about 
teaching school, or about school books, and the school 
book business, knows that there is no basis of fact for 
this pretext. 

The scheme is initiated and promoted by a book 
agent or a combination of agents working through the 
county superintendent of schools. The books to be 
adopted for county uniformity are usually agreed upon 
before the call is made for a county meeting of school 
directors to vote on the question of a uniform series of 
books for the whole County. 

La Salle County's first uniform school book adop- 
tion was a fair example of these illegitimate adoptions. 

There is much that could be said regarding county 
adoptions in other states: Wisconsin, Missouri, and 
Washington but all that need be said is that the same 
temptation exists and the same conditions obtain 
wherever there are county adoptions, and there is no 
prospect of any improvement in these periodical 
plunderings, so long as these plunderings are legalized. 



CHAPTER X 

City School Book Adoptions 

Chicago. — Probably there is no other city that has 
been more sordidly pillaged in school books than 
Chicago. It would take a good sized volume to even 
sketch in outline the exploiters and their exploitations 
in school books for twenty-five years. Bankers, 
lawyers, city oflScials, school board members and 
school officials have had their parts to play. 

The school book agent who manipulated the deal 
by which a series of music books, and a series of copy 
books were adopted in 1894, established influential 
connections by means of which he has changed the 
music books three times, and each time he has had a 
new series of books, and a new publisher. 

A characteristic and typical Chicago adoption of 
"A Uniform Series of School Books," for all the children 
in the second city of the United States, was the adop- 
tion of the Series in English, on June 11th., 1911. 

About three weeks before this adoption, the super- 
intendent of schools requested the district superintend- 
ents to make a careful and critical examination and 
comparison of all the different series of textbooks on 
English, for use in the elementary schools, to deter- 
mine which series was best adapted for use in the schools 
of Chicago, and to report their findings to the super- 
intendent. This was the busiest season of the year 
for these assistant supermtendents, as it was nearing 
the close of schools, with all the extra school activities 
that always come at this season. 

Notice had been received by all the publishers 
asking that not less than ten sets of each series offered 

281 



282 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

for examination, be delivered at the office of the super- 
intendent immediately. 

Something like twenty sets of samples of different 
and sundry language books and grammars, new and 
old, were submitted. 

A number of these eliminated themselves from the 
competition, but about fourteen different series were 
found worthy of consideration in the opinion of these 
ten district superintendents. It was decided to make 
a comparison of all these fourteen series of language 
books, by examining their treatment of a series of 
topics agreed upon, and to estimate and to score the 
points. 

The weather was hot, and there were many oflScial 
school duties pressing for attention; but this work was 
pushed right through to completion by the date their 
report was requested to be presented. To the surprise 
of all interested in the result of this critical exami- 
nation, the superintendent of schools, announced that 
the time for the examination would be extended for 
two weeks! 

These district superintendents could not surmise 
and certainly could not understand why the time was 
extended, when they had completed their examination, 
and made their decision and recommendation. There 
remained nothing further for the district superintend- 
ents to do in the matter, but to go about their several 
duties and await developments. 

On the evening before the day set, and on which 
day there would be a meeting of the school manage- 
ment committee of the Board of Education, a set of 
the books of a new Series in English was laid on the 
desk of each district supermtendent. This was after 
they had gone home, and they would not return in 



CITY SCHOOL BOOK ADOPTIONS 283 

time to examine this new series of books before the 
meeting of the school management committee. Not 
one of these district superintendents, so it was said, 
had seen this series of books before, or had any inti- 
mation that it was to be offered for consideration. 

The recommendation of the committee of the board 
of district superintendents was unanimous for the 
series of books entitled "The New Webster-Cooley 
Course in English," published by Houghton Mif- 
flin & Company. 

The publishers of the other thirteen series of 
Language books, notwithstanding their keen indi- 
vidual disappointments, acquiesced in this recom- 
mendation because they felt that the board of district 
superintendents had given a conscientious and honest 
decision. It was believed that each competitor had 
been given a "square deal." 

What was their astonishment and dismay the next 
day, when the superintendent of schools reported to 
the school management committee that the committee 
of district superintendents had made two recom- 
mendations for language books in English: — 

The Webster-Cooley Course in English, and the 
Cabell-Freeman Series in English published by Wm. 
F. Roberts! 

None of the competing publishers had ever heard of 
Wm. F. Roberts as a publisher, and his books had not 
been examined, so it was claimed by the board of 
district superintendents. 

Naturally, objection was made by members of the 
school management committee, to the recommendation 
of two series, when there was no intention of adopting 
but one. A motion was made to return the report 
to the committee of district superintendents, with 



284 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

instructions to submit a report at the next meeting of 
the school management committee for one series of 
language books. 

The superintendent stated that that action was not 
necessary. If the committee wished a recommen- 
dation of one series of English books the superintendent 
was as well prepared to make it then, as two weeks 
from then. 

When informed that that was what the committee 
wished, this superintendent stated "I recommend the 
adoption of the Cabell-Freeman Series in English 
Books One and Two." 

The motion was made and seconded that the school 
management committee recommend to the Board of 
Education, the adoption of the Cabell-Freeman Series 
in English. The books were adopted on June 11, 
1911, for uniform and exclusive use in all the ele- 
mentary public schools of Chicago, for a period of 
five years ! 

Here was a series of text books adopted over 
fourteen generally and favorably known series of 
books on the subject of English; over a series chosen 
and recommended by the full board of district super- 
intentendents; a Series in English that had not been 
tested nor tried; that had not been out of the bindery 
a week; and that had no sponsors except the superin- 
tendent of schools and the reputed authors ! 

Slowly, and bit by bit, the story was unfolded. It 
would seem that this superintendent had evinced more 
than passing interest in the manuscript of this partic- 
ular Series in English, even before becoming superin- 
tendent of schools. It was an open secret that the 
manuscript was urged upon a preceding superintendent 
of schools to be examined as to its special merits as a 



CITY SCHOOL BOOK ADOPTIONS 285 

Series in English, for use in the Chicago schools. It 
was returned, so it was reported, with an unfavorable 
report as to its suitability for that purpose. 

It was currently reported that the same later-to-be 
superintendent of schools, submitted the manuscript 
of this Series in English, to at least one reputable 
school book publisher for exammation with a view to 
its publication. It was examined and declined. 

It soon developed that this successful publisher of 
the Series in English, was boastful and quite talk- 
ative and he seemed to be flattered by the number of 
his interested listeners. His alleged story was that he 
met the superintendent of the Chicago schools at the 
meeting of the Department of Superintendence of the 
National Education Association at Mobile, in February. 
That an agreement was entered into, between the 
superintendent of schools and Mr. Roberts, whereby 
he was to publish the Cabell-Freeman Series in Eng- 
lish. One of the terms of this alleged agreement was 
that in consideration of his publishing the Series in 
English, the superintendent promised that the Cabell- 
Freeman Series in English would be adopted for 
exclusive use in the Chicago Schools. This fact would 
seem to explain the seemingly inexplicable extension of 
the time limit set by the superintendent of schools, 
for the committee of district Superintendents to report 
the result of its critical examination and comparison 
of text books in English. 

Being a novice in the publishing business, this 
gentleman had failed to appreciate the task he had 
undertaken. He soon found that from March to 
June was a short time in which to get out a Series in 
English from the manuscript to the bound copies of 



286 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

the books! The samples bore evidence of having been 
hastily prepared. 

Let us not be too ready to criticise that high handed 
action. May it not have been possible that this super- 
intendent's intimate acquaintance with the reputed 
authors of the Series in English and with their work 
would justify the superintendent of schools in dis- 
crediting the former superintendent of school's exam- 
ination and rejection of the Series in English, the 
editors of the publishing house or houses, credited with 
examing and rejecting the manuscript of this Series 
in English, and of the superintendent's own committee 
of district superintendents who had spent many a 
tedious hour in critically examinmg and comparing the 
treatments of topics in English teaching in all competing 
books. After all, "The test of the pudding is in the 
eating." 

The books of the Series in English were no sooner 
introduced than complaints began to come in to the 
superintendent's oflSce from the teachers and principals 
from all over the city, of dissatisfaction with the new 
language books. This complaint became so insistent, 
that the superintendent intimated that the teachers 
did not know how to use the books. Whereupon, the 
superintendent had meetings called of teachers using 
the books and assigned one of the authors to explain and 
elucidate the scheme and method contained in these 
books. It was currently reported, that some of these 
teachers were pretty outspoken in their criticisms of 
the books, and their unsuitability for school use. 

This became so embarrassing and annoying to this 
author that the superintendent issued orders to the 
principals so it was reported, that they should instruct 
their teachers that they were not to "heckel" the 



CITY SCHOOL BOOK ADOPTIONS 287 

instructor in English, who was detailed to help them to 
understand and to use the "Essentials in English" 
successfully. 

It would naturally be supposed that the books in 
"Essentials of English" adopted for exclusive use in 
all the elementary schools of the great City of Chicago, 
would go like wild fire into schools of the cities and 
towns within a radius of five hundred miles of Chicago. 

So far as was reported. Rock Island was the only 
other important city school system to adopt these 
"First choice" Essentials of English books for exclusive 
and uniform use in all the elementary schools. 

There was another interesting developement tend- 
ing to let the light in on this, alleged. Mobile deal. 

This nondescript publisher of "Essentials of Eng- 
lish" soon found that, after he had completed his 
introduction of "Essentials in English" for exclusive 
and uniform use into all the elementary schools of 
Chicago; and had gathered and salvaged all the 
displaced books in Language and Grammar; paid his 
printer for the composition, electro plates, printing 
and binding; and had paid the agreed extraordinary 
royalties to the authors, his oflSce expenses and his 
own, reputed, rather extravagant "Expenses"; there 
was little if any profit left. He still had great expec- 
tations of profitable adoptions of "Essentials in Eng- 
lish," from the cities and towns within the circle 
of influence of Chicago. 

But as time went on and Indiana did not adopt 
"Essentials in English," neither did Milwaukee, nor 
Minneapolis, nor Omaha nor Kansas City, nor St. 
Louis, nor East St. Louis, nor Springfield, nor Joliet, 
nor Aurora, nor Elgin, nor Evanston, nor Oak Park, 
nor Blue Island, nor Hinsdale, and he estimated that 



288 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

Chicago had taken enough of "Essentials in English," 
to supply one half her requirements for five years, it 
began to dawn upon him that there was not enough 
profit in his five year contract, with the Chicago Board 
of Education to support him in the position and style 
set for himself. 

With this condition of affairs staring him in the 
face, he was reported to be offering his business for 
sale, consisting of the publisher's rights, plates, stock 
on hand, and his contract with the Board of Education 
of the City of Chicago, and the adoption in Rock 
Island. 

Ordinarily the opportunity to purchase a new series 
of basal school books with important initial adoptions 
in two cities like Chicago and Rock Island, would be 
favorably entertained by most any publishing house. 
And it was rumored "along the street" that at least 
one publisher was considering the proposition. 

And this was where the significant discovery was 
reported to have been made that this would be pub- 
lisher, had contracted to pay the authors as royality 
an amount approximating double the amount custo- 
marily paid to authors of well-established reputation for 
their books on their particular subjects. For this 
reason, and presumably for the further reason that the 
books themselves, were not up to the standards set for 
English books in open competition for adoptions 
generally, the publishers declined to purchase the 
business. 

It would be profitless to go further into this matter 
of the extraordinary high amount of royalty pre- 
sumably paid to the authors. 

The outstanding fact would seem to be that the 
authors whose names appear on the title pages of "Es- 



CITY SCHOOL BOOK ADOPTIONS 289 

sentials in English," had Httle to do with the business 
arrangements either in securing a pubHsher or in getting 
the books adopted for use in the Chicago schools, but 
they were fortunate in having a most effective business 
manager! 

What became of the publisher is not known. His 
printer, it was understood, took over the publisher's 
rights, and carried out the terms of the contracts in a 
business-like manner. 

The "Essentials in English," were used exclusively 
and uniformly in all the elementary schools of the City 
of Chicago, until the expiration of the adoption, when 
they were displaced by another series of "Good Eng- 
lish." 

Leaving out of the consideration all questions of the 
motives of those responsible for these changes of the 
textbooks in English, and the outside pressure brought 
to bear to bring about the changes, the fact remains 
that twice within five years the parents of the children 
in the elementary schools of Chicago were forced to 
discard a full supply of perfectly good English books, 
and to purchase a complete supply of new books on the 
same subject; and that two full supplies of English 
books had been consigned to the junk heap which had 
been the first choice of all the English books on the 
market, by the expert experience and judgment of the 
superintendent of schools, and the same expert judg- 
ment in both cases was that neither series of language 
books was worthy of continued use ! 

Those children who had taken up the study of 
English in the third year grade the year before the first 
of these changes in English books was made, had to 
be provided with English books of three series, and to 
make two exchanges and pay "exchange prices" for 



290 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

new English books of "the same subject and grade" 
as the book exchanged. In other words no pupil who 
began his study of English in one of the books of a 
series, was permitted to complete his elementary stud- 
ies in English in that series of books. Standards of 
"Good English" change so rapidly that what is con- 
sidered first choice English when a child begins to 
study English, is outlawed twice before he can possibly 
finish his elementary studies in that essential subject! 

This same superintendent of schools, following a 
summer vacation said to have been spent in the east 
presumably working on a series of school books which 
would be published later, by a certain schoolbook pub- 
lisher, sprang a surprise on all the other publishers by 
recommending the adoption of a Hygiene Series of 
books by another author of the same publisher. Here- 
tofore it had been the custom before a contemplated 
change in schoolbooks, to give notice to publishers of 
the contemplated change and by so doing give them 
an opportunity to enter into competition for the pros- 
pective business. 

When the attention of this superintendent was 
called to this fact, and the suggestion made that the 
superintendent's high-handed action was likely to 
result in severe and just criticism, the superintendent 
withdrew the recommendation for the two books of the 
Hygiene Series; and, ostensibly, opened up the subject 
of the adoption of books on the subject of physiology 
and hygiene to open competition by notifying all 
})ublishers to send to the ofiice of the superintendent of 
schools sample sets of any modern textbooks on those 
subjects. 

The publishers responded in good faith by sending 
sample copies of their books. 



CITY SCHOOL BOOK ADOPTIONS 291 

After a seemly time, the superintendent re-recom- 
mended the adoption of the favored Hygiene Series of 
books ! 

There was a general adoption of high school books 
during this superintendent's administration which 
illustrates fairly well the business ethics of the managers 
of at least one of the school book publishers. 

In this instance, it was an open secret that there was 
to be a general reorganization of the course of study 
by committees selected for that purpose; and as a 
revision of the course of study usually portends a 
change in textbooks, the publishers had their agents 
on the ground pushing the claims of their respective 
textbooks for favorable consideration. 

As the campaign drew near to its culmination, the 
managers began to prepare to submit their proposals 
for furnishing such of their books as they decided to 
offer. 

At that time, the practice had become a custom 
for the successful bidder to take up all the so-called 
fund books, books owned by the Board of Education 
and loaned to indigent (?) pupils, giving in even ex- 
change an equal number of new books of the adoj^ted 
series; in fact, this condition had been incorporated 
as a paragraph in the printed blank proposals fur- 
nished to publishers, and upon which they were required 
to make their bids; on this particular blank form, this 
objectionable paragraph was numbered and known as 
paragraph, "4." 

One of the best known schoolbook publishing 
companies which assumes to conduct its business upon 
a higher ethical plane than any of its competitors, 
became imbued with the notion that if it could get 



292 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

its competitors to agree to cross out paragraph "4" 
in their proposals, it would be a clever move on its part. 

The eminently respectable and self-esteemed gentle- 
men condescended to call the managers of the different 
competing publishers by telephone and to ask them if 
they did not think it about time for the good of the 
schoolbook business that the practice of even exchang- 
ing the fund books belonging to the board of education 
should be stopped? They suggested that while it had 
become a matter of custom to even exchange the fund 
books in the elementary grades, they felt that the same 
concession should not be extended to the introduction 
of books in the high schools. Each manager was asked 
to indicate how he felt in regard to the proposition; 
and was told that regardless of what the other pub- 
lishers might do, the objectionable paragraph "4" 
would be stricken out from their company's bid when 
it was submitted. Most of the competing companies 
did cross out paragraph "4," so the story goes, before 
submitting their bids to the superintendent of schools. 

But the self-esteemed gentleman, manager of this 
eminently respectable schoolbook publishing company, 
waited until within a very few minutes of the time of 
meeting of the school management committee before 
filing his bid. He appeared at the oflSce of his friend, 
the superintendent of schools, and handed to that 
oflBcial his proposal for furnishing high school books 
to the pupils of the high schools of Chicago for five 
years; but through some oversight of someone in the 
oflBce, the objectionable paragraph "4" had not been 
crossed out in red ink! 

Whether this oversight was pre-arranged or not will 
probably never be known. 



CITY SCHOOL BOOK ADOPTIONS 293 

The superintendent took the gentleman's proposal 
with those of the other competing publishers, and 
proceeded to the very important meeting of the school 
management committee at which meeting, the reports 
of the committees were to be received, the proposals 
read, and the recommendations of high school books 
made by the superintendent of schools. 

It was found that the bids of a number of the pub- 
lishers of high school books favored by the several 
committees were "irregular" because they had para- 
graph "4" crossed out; and for this reason their books 
were ruled out of the competition. The proposal of this 
eminently respectable business gentlemen's publishing 
house was found regular in all particulars. 

As a result of this clever business expedient, this 
manager had the satisfaction of hearing the superin- 
tendent of schools recommend something like 18 of 
his high school books for adoption that day, while his 
formidable competitors sat discomfitted and helpless. 

It was openly boasted that this was the largest and 
most important adoption of high school books that this 
publisher had ever secured before, and was regarded 
as a clever "scoop." 

When brought to task by some of his misled 
competitors, this gentleman's only excuse was said to 
have been that there was too much at stake for him 
to keep faith with his competitors ! 

Practically all the schoolbooks in both the ele- 
mentary schools and in the high schools were changed 
during the administration of this prominent and 
efficient superintendent of Chicago's public schools. 

This worthy superintendent in every instance did 
only what the superintendent of schools had the 
authority and legal right to do. 



294 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

There have been any number of cleverly conceived 
schoolbook adoptions in Chicago since those mentioned 
above, and the changes and "exchanges" go merrily 
on, and they will continue to do so until the laws 
granting authority to adopt a uniform series of books 
for exclusive basic use are repealed. 

The three books of the Gordy Series of United 
States History were adopted for exclusive basic use 
in all the elementary schools of the City of Chicago in 
1917. These books were introduced, and a clean sweep 
change made from another popular series of books. 
The supply of books of the history which had been 
in use were traded in and the exchange price was paid 
in each case, for a copy of the new Gordy. How 
infinitely much cheaper it would have been, if the 
books had to be changed, to have required those pupils 
who had to have a new history buy one of the new 
books, and to have permitted those who were provided 
with a book to continue to use it; and how much such 
an arrangement would have added to the interest of 
the students of history. But not so; the discarded 
books had to be gathered up, assorted and gotten out 
of the way. It would be interesting to know just what 
became of those discarded books, and who "bought" 
them. 

One of the cleverest of the many clever schoolbook 
transactions was the precipitate adoption of a two 
book series of geographies for "exclusive basic use in 
the Chicago Public Schools for a Period of Five Years" 
by the Board of Education on February 23, 1921. 

It was the evident intention of all parties concerned 
to consumate this profitable transaction before the 
question of free textbooks should be decided at the 
approaching election. 



CITY SCHOOL BOOK ADOPTIONS 295 

Free textbooks carried at the election, but the new 
geographies were saddled upon the pupils of the public 
schools for exclusive basic use for a period of five years 
at least! 

By the adoption of free textbooks by the people, 
the last pretext for a uniform series of textbooks was 
removed. There is no educational reason why the 
children should not have the benefit of all the infor- 
mation on the subject of geography to be found in all the 
textbooks in geography. This, no doubt, is one reason 
for the precipitate haste in putting the transaction 
"over" in February, before the adoptions of all the other 
books under the free textbook law the following 
summer. 

But after these books were adopted, there might 
have been a great saving of the people's tax money 
in the manner of introducing the new books if those 
interested had had that object in mind. 

The great majority of the children who study geog- 
raphy were provided with books in geography. A 
book in geography is planned for two year's work in 
that subject. There was no educational reason why 
those pupils who had begun in a book in geography 
should not be permitted to finish it with their class. 
This would have made it unnecessary for the School 
Board to purchase a supply of new books for those 
pupils before they were promoted to the higher book, 
and none at all for all those who were using the higher 
book! By this method of introduction, it would have 
taken two years to complete the introduction of the 
new books. 

There was another method of saving well known to 
the school authorities if they had cared to take ad- 
vantage of it. Each book of a two -book series of geog- 



296 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

raphy is bound in One Volume, and in Two Parts. 
Each book contains two years work. If the books 
are purchased bound in Parts, each book will serve 
two pupils, one in a grade, and the other in the next 
higher grade. It is evident that by purchasing the 
geographies bound in Parts that it would require but 
one half as many geographies as it takes when the 
books are bound two Parts in one volume; and in 
addition to the economy in expense, there is the ele- 
ment of convenience to the user,^ — the pupil only has 
to carry and handle the Part he is using, and another 
pupil carries and uses the other Part! But possibly, 
that was not the understanding, nor the intention. 

Following the adoption of geographies, but not 
until after the election at which the proposition 
authorizing the Board of Education to purchase 
and to furnish free textbooks was carried, there was 
a neatly prepared little slate of sundry schoolbooks 
brought forward and recommended for adoption 
for exclusive and basic use in all the public schools 
of the City of Chicago. 

This slate reached the Board of Education for final 
adoption where it, for some reason, was ruthlessly 
smashed by majority vote of the Board of Education. 

It is rather significant that the rumpus in the Board 
of Education which has been followed by the long line 
of exposures of irregularities, started over the proposed 
adoption of a neatly prepared list of school books! 
Verily, the authority to adopt a compulsory exclusive 
uniformity series of schoolbooks for use in all the schools 
of a city, county or state, is the root of most evils! 

It is claimed that there is one member of the Board 
of Education of Chicago who is a dealer in second 
hand schoolbooks, and is interested in buying and 



CITY SCHOOL BOOK ADOPTIONS 297 

selling what is known as "exchange stock." At the 
time of his appointment, the fact that he was familiar 
with the schoolbook business was given out as one 
reason for his appointment on the Board of Education ; 
and that he would be able to cope with the schoolbook 
publishers, and protect the interests of the people! 

It is claimed that there is no doubt of this gentle- 
man's ability to appraise an "exchange stock" of old 
books and set a value upon it. 

The "exchange stocks" of discarded schoolbooks 
resulting from the numerous and needless sweeping 
changes of schoolbooks in the public schools of Chicago 
alone, amounts to a tidy sum in the aggregate each 
year. 

It must not be assumed that the Chicago manner of 
deciding schoolbook matters has been so much worse 
than in other cities. The same exploiting methods 
have been practiced in most of the cities large and 
small. Cleveland, Toledo, Columbus, Cincinnati, 
Indianapolis, Milwaukee, St. Paul, Minneapolis, Des 
Moines, Omaha, Salt Lake City, Seattle, Portland, San 
Francisco, New Orleans, Atlanta, Memphis, Washing- 
ton, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Boston, have all had 
their share of marauding school book adoptions. 

Minneapolis has been for years storm swept and a 
storm center for the schoolbook exploiters. This city, 
being the headquarters of the agents and representa- 
tives for that region of the most active exploiting school- 
book houses, has furnished the stage and the setting 
for many an interesting schoolbook adoption. For- 
tunately, since Minnesota has become a free textbook 
state, the patrons have not felt the effects of frequent 
changes in schoolbooks directly, as the purchases 



298 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

are paid for out of the school treasury, but the expense 
was there just the same. 

Just a few years ago, so the story is related, a nice 
little quiet scheme was worked up, whereby a new 
series of music books which was just being published, 
was to be slipped in to the Minneapolis schools. 

There had been no previous discussion of a change 
in music books. In fact, the music supervisor's regular 
requisition for the books in use had been handed in, 
and the regular order for the next year's supply of the 
regularly adopted books had been made up, and was 
ready to mail to the publishers. When instructions 
came to hold it up as there might be a change in music 
books. 

The author of the new series of music books made 
it convenient to visit Minneapolis about this time. 

The publishers of these new music books had as 
their resident agent at Minneapolis one of its most 
versatile and experienced schoolbook men, and one of 
the most effective "workers" along the old traditional 
methods known to the business. His clever handi- 
work was evident in this well-laid scheme. 

The author was so elated over the prospect of having 
Minneapolis public schools adopt his music books 
right off the press, that he just could not keep it. He 
was said to have told some of his students that Min- 
neapolis was going to adopt his music books at the 
next meeting of the school board. 

This interesting bit of news soon reached the ears 
of the one interested in the music books that had been 
in use in the Minneapolis schools; and the interesting 
tip was passed on to the resident agent for these books 
at Minneapolis. 



CITY SCHOOL BOOK ADOPTIONS 299 

This agent sought an interview with the supervisor 
of music and found that it was true that the author 
of the new music series had been in Minneapolis; had 
called on her and had talked to her of his books and 
their merits but that she had not intimated to this 
author that there was any intention upon her part to 
recommend a change of music books at this time, nor 
did the author ask her to recommend a change. 

The music supervisor did intimate that she felt 
that something was in the air, and suggested that he, 
the agent, had better be alert to the situation. This 
agent made diligent inquiry among all those who were 
in positions to know what was going on in schoolbook 
matters, but all the light he could get on the situation 
was that the supply clerk had been instructed to hold 
his order for music books until after the meeting of the 
textbook committee. 

Notwithstanding the fact that he had word from 
Chicago that there would be a meeting of the textbook 
committee with the superintendent of schools on Mon- 
day, he could find no one who would admit that there 
would be a meeting of the committee on Monday, so 
adroitly was the scheme managed. 

On Monday forenoon, a gentleman of some con- 
siderable prominence in business and political affairs in 
Minnesota telephoned the president of the school 
board; and in answer to his questions, he learned that 
the subject of a change in music books was under 
discussion; that there would be a meeting of the text- 
book committee at four o'clock that afternoon; and 
that if this committee reported in favor of a change, the 
school board would be likely to adopt the report. 

When asked if he knew upon whose initiative this 
change of books was to be made, he replied that he 



300 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

understood that it was upon the recommendation of the 
supervisor of music! Asked whether he was sure of 
that, he rephed, that he was so informed. The agent 
told this gentleman that he could assure him that the 
supervisor had made no such report. Whereupon this 
gentleman called for the members of the textbook com- 
mittee. These were named to him. 

After thinking for a minute he was reported to 
have said that there is one man on that committee 
who, you may rest assured, if there is anything shady 
or underhanded going on is not a party to it; and that he 
felt quite certain that this member had not been con- 
sulted; and therefore he is not aware of what is going 
on; and that he would advise that he be seen at once. 

The agent lost no time in making his way to the 
office of the member of the committee whose reputa- 
tion for integrity would not admit of his being a party 
to a secret and underhanded transaction. 

When this honorable gentleman was told what was 
going on, he stated frankly that he did not believe it 
possible; that he was a member of that committee; 
that the members were furnished copies of all items of 
business to come before the committee; and that the 
only schoolbook business was a recommendation for a 
change of a high school book ; and he felt sure that the 
superintendent and the other member or members of 
the committee would not take up and discuss so impor- 
tant a subject without consulting him. 

Having been reminded of what the president of the 
Board had stated over the telephone; and assured that 
the supervisor of music had said that she had not recom- 
mended nor did she contemplate recommending a 
change in music books ; and that the proposed change to 
the new music books had been given out in Chicago, 



CITY SCHOOL BOOK ADOPTIONS 301 

he made the emphatic statement that there would be 
no change in music books recommended by the text- 
book committee that day! 

He suggested that the agent go to the superintend- 
ent's office and make formal request to be heard when 
the question of music books came up at the committee 
meeting. 

He remarked dryly "You be right there and I will 
see that you are called in if the question comes up." 

Acting upon this suggestion, the agent called upon 
the superintendent of schools and made his statement 
that there was to be a meeting of himself and his text- 
book committee at four o'clock at which meeting the 
proposition to introduce a new series of music books 
would be considered; and as the representative of a 
party at interest, he presented his formal request to 
be permitted to have a hearing when the question 
came up for action. The superintendent turned upon 
his caller and savagely demanded, "Who told you 
that there was to be a meeting of any committee.'^" 
His caller quietly replied, "The president of your 
school board, and a member of your textbook commit- 
tee!" This answer seemed to quiet him, but it was 
evident that he was uneasy for he was reported to 
have said that if any question of music books was to 
come up he did not know of it. The superintendent 
did not say whether the agent would be granted a 
hearing, but he did promise to lay the agents request 
before the committee. 

At any rate, this agent decided that he would be 
on hand early, so he reached the superintendent's 
waiting room promptly at 3 o'clock, and took his 
place on the bench where so many book men have 



302 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

"cooled their heels" waitmg for the superintendent 
of schools to grant them audience. 

He had been there but a few minutes, as he relates 
the story, before the officious chairman of the com- 
mittee blustered out into the outer office, and in a 
commanding voice that everybody could hear asked 
where the supervisor of music was; saying that she 
had promised to be on hand at three o'clock and here 
it was quarter past three. In a few minutes the super- 
visor appeared and was immediately ushered into the 
superintendent's office. As the meeting was called 
for four o'clock, the other member or members of the 
committee had not arrived. 

The supervisor of music was closeted with the 
chairman of the committee and the superintendent, 
and came out seemingly very much perturbed before 
the time for the meeting of the committee. It was 
reported afterwards that the supervisor was given to 
understand that it was high time that there was a 
change in music books and that the change would be 
made "today, and upon the recommendation of the 
supervisor of music!" 

On his way to the committee meeting, the gentle- 
man of integrity who would not be a party to a shady 
or underhand scheme, purchased a copy of the Journal. 
His eye was attracted to an editorial which he read 
with more than passing interest. It was this: 
"Not as Plain as A. B. C." 

"We learn that a change is meditated in the series 
of music books used in the Minneapolis schools. Ap- 
parently the change was to have been brought about, 
if at all, rather quietly and unobtrusively. It has been 
the wise rule of the Minneapolis school board to notify 
all schoolbook publishers in plenty of season before 



CITY SCHOOL BOOK ADOPTIONS 303 

such changes were made, so that they could appear 
and enter the competition. This rule appears to 
have been overlooked in the present instance." 

"Another curious circumstance is that the new 
series, which it is proposed to adopt, is still in press. 
There has been little or no opportunity to examine 
the books which the board is now asked to adopt." 

"Naturally, a change of this sort means a consider- 
able additional expenditure, and it would seem that 
before supplanting the present series, which seems to 
have been quite satisfactory, it would be well not only 
to have an open hearing, but to give any new series the 
test of close, expert examination." 

"It would be interesting to know just what the 
source and motive of the initiative in this rather singular 
affair may be!" 

This gentleman is said to have walked into the 
superintendent's office and after greeting the superin- 
tendent and other member or members of the com- 
mittee, nonchalantly asked whether they had seen 
today's Journal? Of course they had not, for they had 
been too much occupied with the business that was to 
come before the committee. He suggested dryly, 
that they would better read the editorial before 
beginning the committee meeting. 

The textbook committee meeting was short. It 
did not seem to the agent m.ore than fifteen minutes 
until he was called for, and he entered the superintend- 
ent's office. He found the officious chairman busily 
engaged gathering up his belongings for a hasty de- 
parture. The gentleman of the strictest integrity was 
sitting at ease, with a most quisicial and comical 
expression of countenance which seemed to indicate 
that he had enjoyed the discomfiture of his fellow 
members of the textbook committee. 



304 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

The superintendent of schools acting as spokesman 

for the committee said "Mr. , the committee 

has decided not to take up the question of music books 
at this time. If you will call on the supply clerk he 
will give you the order for your music books." 

The agent for the music books in use, glanced at 
the honest gentleman sitting on the opposite side of the 
big table, who returned a knowing look with a drooping 
of the left eyelid as much as to say : — 

"The best laid schemes o'mice an' men 

Gang aft a-gley, 
An' lea's us naught but grief and pain, 
For promis'd joy." 

It came out afterwards that that little opportune 
editorial "scared them stiff," A school board election 
was coming on, and it seemed to these gentlemen to 
portend trouble. The superintendent expressed his 
disapproval emphatically of anyone who would resort 
to the newspapers in a "schoolbook fight." It did 
lead to one of the civic organizations taking up the 
subject of school board matters. A detective was 
employed, who succeeded, so he reported, in making a 
deal with this same chairman of the textbook com- 
mittee member for a "cash" consideration to purchase 
certain school supplies. He was indicted and arrested, 
but the prosecution was never pushed, for the reason 
that the laws of Minnesota makes the giver of a bribe 
equally guilty with the taker \ 

About 1912, there was another "book fight" in 
Minneapolis. There was a committee appointed by 
the superintendent of schools, or the Board of Educa- 
tion or both, consisting of something like twenty-one 
principals on Course of Study and Textbooks. 



CITY SCHOOL BOOK ADOPTIONS 305 

This committee was to make a thorough study of 
the course of study and to make its recommendation 
of changes to the superintendent of schools. It was 
appointed in the autumn and was requested to report 
in the spring. It was not long before this committee 
seemed to lose sight of the subject of the course of study 
and, through the manipulations of schoolbook agents, 
to center its interest on schoolbooks. Everything 
seemed to run along pretty smoothly, regarding the 
books on all the subjects except primary reading. On 
this subject, for some reason, the report of the com- 
mittee on reading did not fit in with the slate of the 
committee of the whole. Every other subject was 
reported upon to the "satisfaction" of the whole com- 
mittee, but the committee on reading persisted in 
recommending a series of readers other than the series 
of readers it was expected to recommend ! 

There was much bitter feeling engendered. One of 
the members of the committee on reading, expired 
suddenly. While the agitation over this subject may 
not have been the cause of her sudden demise, it was 
known to her friends that she felt keenly the bitter 
comments of her associates on the general committee, 
because she recommended and championed the Pro- 
gressive Road to Reading when she was expected 
to recommend the Aldine Series. 

The committee on reading stood by its guns. The 
general committee substituted the Aldine readers for 
the Progressive Road readers. By this act, it sought to 
discredit its own committee on reading and it did "put 
over" its slate unbroken, so far as the recommendation 
of the committee was concerned. 

Much might be written about the activities of the 
opposing friends and advocates of these two reading 



306 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

systems that would be interesting enough in its recital, 
but not profitable for this discussion. 

The Board of Education adopted the Progressive 
Road to Reading, accepting and approving the recom- 
mendation of the committee on reading. The books 
were duly ordered and introduced in all the schools 
and everything was running along smoothly and 
satisfactorily when a new and unexpected incident 
came into the situation. 

One of the authors of the Aldine series of readers was 
elected superintendent of schools of Minneapolis! 

Following his appointment, his associate author 
was appointed assistant superintendent of schools ! 

Imagine the predicament of the former superintend- 
ent's assistant who had visited some of the cities in 
the East, where the Aldine series was in use, and other 
cities where the Progressive Road to Reading series 
was in use, and had recommended the adoption of the 
Progressive Road to Reading in the Minneapolis 
schools, and had been enthusiastic in commendation of 
the results from its use in the schools ! 

It was but a short time, so it was reported, before 
this assistant superintendent was "assigned" to differ- 
ent work, presumably so that she might not interfere 
with plans to remedy any defects in the established 
scheme for teaching reading in the schools of Minne- 
apolis. 

It did not take long for a spontaneous sentiment to 
develop among the teachers and principals favorable 
to the introduction and use of the system of reading 
books whose authors were their superintendent and 
assistant superintendent of schools. 

The taxpayers of Minneapolis, so it is reported, had 
to foot the bills for a supply of the books, Reading 



CITY SCHOOL BOOK ADOPTIONS 307 

and Phonic Charts, Sight word cards, Phonic Cards, 
Rhyme Charts, Word and Phrase Cards, Phonic 
Drill Cards, and Seat Work Cards for all the schools 
in addition to paying the salaries of the authors of all 
this paraphernalia. 

In addition to the system of teaching reading this 
meteoric superintendent and his assistant, were asso- 
ciated in the authorship of a Language Series. 

There soon grew up a spontaneous and irresistible 
sentiment among the teachers and principals for this 
new Language series. And it was not long, so it is 
said before the Board of Education adopted the Lan- 
guage series for basic and exclusive textbooks for use in 
all the elementary schools of Minneapohs. 

What would you do if you were a mere teacher or a 
mere principal in a school system, where your superin- 
tendent assumed autocratic power of reassignment, 
promotion, demotion, or dismissal of all members of 
the teaching and supervisory force, and he and his 
assistant were associated in the authorship of a system 
of reading, and of a Language series. Would you not 
be quite favorably inclined to the introduction of those 
books into your classes? 

If you were not so inclined, you might find yourself 
in the position of one of Mr. Briggs' familiar charac- 
ters, "When a feller needs a friend." 

Soon after these authors' system of Teaching 
Reading was supposed to be well "planted" in the 
schools of Minneapolis, they were casting about for 
greener fields. 

The superintendent of Minneapolis received a 
"call" from the Board of Education of Cleveland, and 
he was elected to the position of superintendent of 
schools of that city. 



308 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

It was generally understood that the Cleveland 
school board granted to the new superintendent near 
autocratic powers governing all matters pertaining to 
teachers, course of study, schoolbooks, principals, assis- 
tant and district superintendents and supervisors. 

He chose for his assistant his co-author and assis- 
tant superintendent at Minneapolis. 

The newspapers reported a visit of the superintend- 
ent elect to Cleveland sometime before he was to 
assume his duties as superintendent of schools. After 
looking the assistant superintendents and supervisors 
over, he was reported to have given out the information 
through the newspapers that the services of certain 
ones would not be continued, and that certain others 
might be retained. 

One of the assistant superintendents thus so sum- 
marily dismissed was the veteran and highly respected 
Henry C. Muckley who had served the public schools 
of Cleveland faithfully and efficiently thirty-two years. 
During the later years of this long term of service, he 
was generally regarded as the "right hand man" of 
the different superintendents of schools as they came 
and went. He was the best known, and the most 
beloved man in the school service of Cleveland. 

It does seem that he deserved more considerate 
treatment at the hands of this autocratic schoolbook 
author superintendent who had not as yet taken his 
chair as superintendent. 

These summary dismissals of those in prominent 
positions were supposed to have been made to impress 
the great body of the supervising and teaching force 
of the city with the authority of this new dictator of 
the public schools of Cleveland. It is almost unbe- 
lievable that any Board of Education anywhere could 



CITY SCHOOL BOOK ADOPTIONS 309 

be found that would weakly acquiesce in so discour- 
teous treatment of so deserving a man who had given 
so many years of his life to the public schools under its 
management and control. 

It is rather significant that there had been a pretty 
keen "schoolbook fight" in Cleveland between the 
agents of these author superintendents' System of 
Teaching Reading, and the agents of the same pub- 
lishers who had assumed to contest the adoption of 
their books in Minneapolis. 

The settlement of this "book fight" was some- 
thing like the treaty of Versailles, about all it settled 
was the fight. 

It was decided that the "System of Teaching Read- 
ing" should be used in the primary grades of one-half 
of the schools, and the opposing "Method in Reading" 
in the other one-half. 

This was the situation regarding reading books in 
the primary grades of the Cleveland schools when the 
authors of the System of Teaching Reading assumed 
the domination of educational matters in the Cleveland 
public schools. 

The thought of the former superintendent of schools, 
at the time that this arrangement was made, was that 
the inevitable rivalry between the partisans of these 
two series of books would have the effect of securing 
better teaching of each of these "Special methods" than 
would result if either one had the field to itself. Not a 
bad idea, only it should be carried far enough to in- 
clude all of the different methods. It does not require a 
free play of fancy to appreciate the embarrassing posi- 
tion in which this action of the school board placed 
those assistant superintendents, principals, and teach- 



310 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

ers who had exercised their preference for the Rational 
Method in Reading. 

The seeming autocratic powers of the new superin- 
tendent regarding assignment, promotion and demo- 
tion of teachers did not tend to make their positions 
any less embarrassing. 

As might be expected, many of these erstwhile 
proponents of the Rational Method and of the "dual 
plan," now that they had been privileged to see the 
authors of the System of Teaching Reading at closer 
range, began to see much of merit in the System of 
Teaching Reading that they had not been enabled to 
see before. 

The outcome of this spontaneous outburst of 
admiration for the new superintendents' System of 
Teaching Reading was practically unanimous. Teacher 
after teacher and school after school sought permission 
to introduce the books, word and phonic charts, seat 
cards, and word and phrase cards of the System of 
Teaching Reading. 

There were no reports of refusal of any of these 
spontaneous requests by the superintendent's office. 

It should be remembered that these same author 
superintendents were associate authors of the Aldine 
Language Series; and the assistant superintendent was 
joint author of the Aldine Spellers. 

The books of this Language Series were adopted for 
use in the elementary schools of Cleveland. 

Following the declaration of war, the superintend- 
ent of the Cleveland schools was appointed a member 
of the Army Educational Commission; and a member 
of the Commission appointed by the War Department 
to establish public schools in war industry centers. 



CITY SCHOOL BOOK ADOPTIONS 311 

The plan for the school systems at these industry 
centers was drawn by him. 

Among the schoolbooks prescribed for basic use in 
these government schools on industrial reservations 
were the Primer, Teachers' Manual and all the Read- 
ers, both pupils' and teachers' editions. Seat Work 
Cards, Primer Rhyme Cards, Book One Rhyme Cards, 
Reading Chart, Phonic Cards, Sight Work Cards, 
Word and Phrase Cards, Rhyme Charts, and Pupils' 
Phonic Drill Cards of the Aldine System of Teaching 
Reading; the Aldine First Language Book, and Teach- 
ers' Manual, and Second Language Book, and Teachers' 
Manual; and Aldine Speller, Books, I, II, III, and IV. 

It is significant that the books and paraphernalia of 
this prominent, meteoric superintendent were intro- 
duced into the systems of schools one after another after 
he took charge of them, and that he did not remain 
in charge very long after his books were introduced. 

There are those who believe that the superintendent 
of schools should be given authority to choose and to 
recommend textbooks for exclusive use in the schools 
without check or hindrance from the Board of Educa- 
tion. 

There should be no authority lodged anywhere in 
any individual or body to choose, adopt, or contract 
for a uniform series of schoolbooks for use in a class, 
city, county, or state. 



CHAPTER XI 

On State Uniformity of School Books 

The foundation of all the excesses and abuses in 
the school-book business, is the legal provision for the 
"Adoption of a uniform series of text books for use in 
all the public schools," whether of a state, county, city, 
township, or school district. The idea of a "uniform 
series of school books," has been insisted upon by the 
school book publishers from the beginning in their 
own interests, for therein lay their only opportunity 
for the exploitation of the schools in a wholesale 
manner. 

It affords them an artificial monopoly of supplying 
all the books to be used in a state, county, city, town 
or school district for a definite period, usually for five 
years. 

These contracts are valuable enough to repay the 
publisher who secures them for the outlay necessary 
to secure them. These abuses and suspicious prac- 
tices are not inherent in the school book publishing 
business. They are found in all lines of business where 
there is competition for contracts for a monopoly. 
Think of the scandals in most of our cities over the 
granting of franchises for the exclusive use of the 
streets and alleys for various public service corpora- 
tions, such as gas, electric light, telephone, and street 
car corporations. 

In many instances, these plundering promoters who 
secured these franchises were enabled to sell their 
bare franchises for fabulous sums. 

312 



STATE UNIFORMITY OF SCHOOL BOOKS 313 

All through the years there have been these scram- 
bles for the monopoly of furnishing uniforms for 
policeman and firemen. 

Even when our country was in the stress of war and 
there was urgent need for the prompt and adequate 
equipment of an army, this same question of "uniform 
and exclusive" equipment led to serious delays and to 
near disastrous results. 

Not only was this true of articles of clothing, shoes, 
hats, socks, blankets, etc., but in the more vital mat- 
ters of arms and munitions. 

Powerful influences prevented the manufacture of 
field guns until a particular type could be perfected, 
with the result that the new guns never reached the 
firing line. 

This was equally true in regard to machine guns. 
Notwithstanding the urgent need for this essential 
equipment, some powerful mfluence prevented action 
until after a special "make" of machine gun could be 
perfected. Practically none of these favored uniform 
machine guns reached our armies over seas before the 
armistice. 

The delay in providing aeroplanes for our army, 
awaiting the designing, experimenting and building 
of a uniform and exclusive "Liberty" engine, is a 
matter of bitter recollection. 

Wherever and whenever the opportunity is offered 
for a great "fat" contract for supplying a uniform 
and exclusive material or equipment of any sort for 
pubhc use, you will find "designers" and designing 
men using any and every influence and questionable 
method to secure the proffered monopoly. 



314 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

A STATE UNIFOEMITY SCHOOL SHOE LAW 

Let US suppose, for illustration, that a "Uniform 
and exclusive school shoe law" should be enacted in 
any one or any number of states. This law provides 
for the creation of a "State School Shoe Commission 
of five members," consisting of the governor, and state 
auditor, exofficio members, and three members to be 
appointed by the governor. This law provides that no 
member shall have been engaged in the manufacture 
of shoes for at least two years prior to his appointment, 
and that no relative of himself or his wife shall be 
engaged in the shoe business. 

It is made the duty of the said State School Shoe 
Commission to advertise for bids for the monopoly 
of supplying shoes for "uniform and exclusive" wear 
of all the children attending the public schools in the 
state for five years. 

The form of bid and the specifications provide 
that bidders shall submit samples of the shoes upon 
which bids are submitted. The bidder must give three 
prices, first, net contract; second, net retail; and third, 
net exchange. The net contract price is the price at 
which the shoes will be supplied to authorized dealers 
in school shoes at a central depository in the state. 

The net retail price is the price at which the shoe 
dealer is authorized to sell the adopted school shoes to 
school pupils, when said pupil has no old pair of shoes to 
offer in exchange. 

The exchange price is the price the pupil must pay 
for a new pair of shoes in addition to his used shoes 
which are in wearable condition. 

Bidders are advised that they may submit briefs 
setting forth the excellent qualities of their shoes, and 
that arrangement will be made for hearings by appoint- 



STATE UNIFORMITY OF SCHOOL BOOKS 315 

ment by members of the State Uniformity School Shoe 
Commission with representatives of the shoe manu- 
facturers. 

A day is set for receiving bids from manufacturers 
of shoes on which day the bids will be opened, read and 
tabulated. While this clerical work of tabulating the 
bids is being done, the State Uniform School Shoe 
Commission decides to give each bidder or his agent 
fifteen minutes for an oral presentation of the merits 
of his particular make of school shoes. This proceding 
goes on solemnly until all have been heard. Much 
interest is shown in these presentation speeches, and 
each speaker is complimented and thanked for the 
valuable assistance he has given the State Uniform 
School Shoe Commission, in arriving at a wise choice 
in the selection of the very best school shoes for the 
children of the state. 

In all probability, the uniform school shoe to be 
adopted, had been settled upon by a majority of the 
members of the State Uniform School Shoe Commis- 
sion, at a private meeting with the governor long before 
these hearings were held. Quite likely, the campaign 
manager of the governor was the attorney for the 
"Excelsior Paper Insole School Shoe Company," a 
local industry whose oflBcials subscribed liberally to 
the campaign "war chest" of the governor and his 
party, and quite as likely, just as liberally to that of his 
opponent. 

Numerous delegations appeared before the com- 
mission to present their claims and protests. The 
Labor delegates, demanding that the bids of no shoe 
manufacturer "unfair to union labor" shall be con- 
sidered; and that the uniform school shoe adopted 
shall bear the union label in a conspicuous place. 



316 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

This delegation leaves a list of all school shoe manu- 
facturers, "unfair to union labor" with the governor. 

The delegations representing the "Anti-high heel 
association"; the "Flat heel and common sense 
society"; and the "sandal and moccasin propaganda 
association," each demanded a hearing. These delega- 
tions are patiently listened to and each is assured that 
sympathetic consideration will be given to its ex- 
pressed wishes and demands. 

The public hearings having ended, the governor 
on behalf of the State Uniform School Shoe Commis- 
sion, announces that the commission, in order to have 
time to examine carefully the many samples of shoes 
submitted, and to consider the bids on each shoe, 
"workmanship and quality of materials considered" 
will adjourn for thirty days. 

The bidders and their agents are notified that all 
hearings, public or private, are closed and that it is the 
desire of the commission that all bidders and their 
agents leave town, and that they make no efforts to 
see or communicate with any member of the State 
Uniform School Shoe Commission, on pain of forfeiting 
consideration of their bid. 

If the commission should wish further information 
from any bidder or his agent, he would be sent for and 
invited to appear. The experienced "Uniform school 
shoe contract" man understands this familiar "gag." 
He knows well enough that unless he is "in" on the 
deal, he might just as well go home and remain there, 
for he will never be called. 

On the day set for the meeting of the governor and 
his State Uniform School Shoe Commission to adopt 
their Uniform State School Shoes, two other influential 
delegations were on hand demanding a public hearing. 



STATE UNIFORMITY OF SCHOOL BOOKS 317 

The Amalgamated State Journeyman Shoe Workers 
urged that the state uniform school shoes adopted must 
be manufactured in the state. 

A group of public spirited political agitators in- 
sisted that the state must lease the lasts, designs, 
patterns and trade brand of most any shoe, buy a 
shoe factory, and manufacture all the school shoes for 
all the school children and sell them at cost. (This 
accomplished, the next step was to move to have the 
state uniform school shoes manufactured, distributed, 
and furnished to all the school children in the state 
"free of all cost.") 

They argued that if the State Uniform School 
Commission would purchase, equip, maintain and 
operate a factory, they stood ready to guarantee that 
the State Uniformity School Shoe Commission could 
manufacture and distribute, school shoes cheaper than 
private ''capitalistic" corporations, and at the same 
time give employment to a select number of politician 
ne'r do wells, and as their salaries would be paid out of 
the state treasury, their valuable services would be 
"free of all cost." 

After careful consideration of these disinterested 
propositions, the governor on behalf of his State School 
Shoe Commission gave out a statement to the effect 
that while the commission found much to commend 
in these several recommendations, and that sooner or 
later some of them should receive favorable con- 
sideration, that for the present it seemed to the com- 
mission that in the interest of all concerned it would 
be best to proceed with the adoption of the proposition 
of some one of the regular bidders in accord with the 
advertisement for bids. 



318 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

In order to give out the impression that the mem- 
bers of the commission were going into the comparative 
merits of the many samples of school shoes, representa- 
tives of a number of the competing shoe manufacturers 
were sent for to appear before the commission. These 
were questioned regarding the wearing qualities of 
parts of their shoes. These agents were astonished 
to find how much these members of the State Uni- 
formity School Shoe Commission knew about the 
technology of shoe making. 

Each shoe representative was asked whether his 
house, in the event of the adoption of his shoe for exclu- 
sive wear by all the school children in the state, would 
agree to make such changes in the shoe as the com- 
mission should recommend. These various representa- 
tives all left the private audience with the commission 
feeling that the commission was certainly interested in 
his shoe, and each wired his house that the "situation 
looks favorable to me." 

Finally, word is given out that at a public meeting 
of the State Uniform School Shoe Commission the 
result of the adoption would be announced. 

When the meeting is called to order, every school 
shoe manufacturer, and his agent is present. 

After some preliminaries, the governor rises and 
announces the purpose of the meeting. He makes a 
speech in which he emphasizes the painstaking and 
impartial care the members of the commission have 
given to this matter of so great importance to every 
child attending the public schools and to the parents 
and teachers of the children. 

He wished to thank the members of the State Uni- 
form School Shoe Commission, in behalf of the people 
of the state, for their patriotic services to the state. 



STATE UNIFORMITY OF SCHOOL BOOKS 319 

He addresses a few complimentary words to the 
bidders and their representatives, thanking them for 
their helpfulness to him and the other members of the 
commission. He states that he is sorry that the com- 
mission could not adopt all of their school shoes, and 
that some of them will have to be disappointed. 

The secretary of the commission is asked to read 
the result of the commission's action. 

This official announced the adoption of the "Every 
Day School Shoe," manufactured and offered by the 
Excelsior Paper Insole Shoe Company. 

After this announcement, the governor, as chair- 
man, states that as the commission had considerable 
unfinished business to clean up, he would ask the gentle- 
men to retire. 

The next morning's issue of the administration 
newspaper contains a two column interview with the 
governor, in which he expatiated upon the very favor- 
able contract he had succeeded in making with the 
manufacturers of the Every Day School Shoe. 

What a satisfaction it will be to him and to every 
parent in this great state to see every child in the state at 
the opening of school in September, walking proudly to 
school wearing a new pair of Every Day School Shoes ! 

It must be a matter of personal satisfaction to every 
voter and taxpayer to know that the estimated saving 
to the people of the state, by the adoption of the 
Every Day School Shoe, as the uniform state school 
shoe, will not be less than one million dollars for the 
five year period ! 

The editorial in the administration newspaper 
"volunteered" the prediction that the governor would 
stump the state that fall making the State Uniformity 
School Shoe Law his chief slogan. 



320 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

The following week all the administration news- 
papers in the state came out with the same interview 
with the governor and laudatory editorials. 

The chief entertainer of the Paper Insole Shoe 
Company arranged for a quiet but rather elaborate 
little dinner at the big hotel. The governor, his cam- 
paign manager, the editor of the administration news- 
paper, and the members of the State Uniformity School 
Shoe Commission were honored guests. 

The principals of the Excelsior Paper Insole Shoe 
Company and their fine worker were the hosts. The 
entertainment was a most congenial affair, and it was 
the unanimous judgment of the guests that their hosts 
had given them a royal good time. 

In due time, the official State Uniformity School 
Shoe Bulletin was issued and distributed to all the 
school officials and school shoe dealers in the state. 
The usual instructions and directions were specifically 
set out. 

1. "The Every Day School Shoes, adopted as the 
uniform school shoes shall be introduced and worn to 
the exclusion of all other shoes by all the school children 
of the state and continue to be worn for five years from 
September, 1st., except that nothing in this act shall 
be construed to prevent the wearing of rubbers or over- 
shoes as "Supplementary shoes," but such "Supple- 
mentary shoes," shall not be worn to the exclusion 
of the regularly adopted school shoes under the pro- 
visions of this act." 

2. "Any person violating the provisions of the law 
relating to a uniform series of school shoes, shall be 
deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction, 
shall be punished by fine of not less than twenty-five 



STATE UNIFORMITY OF SCHOOL BOOKS 321 

($25) dollars, nor more than five-hundred ($500.00) 
dollars. 

3. "Any teacher who shall wear or permit to be 
worn in his or her school any shoe other than the one 
adopted by the said State Uniformity School Shoe 
Commission, after said shoes have been supplied by the 
contractor, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon 
conviction shall be punished as provided for in the 
preceding section, and said conviction shall operate 
as a cancellation of said teacher's license, and contract 
with the school district, and said person shall not 
again be licensed to teach in the public schools of the 
state." 

4. "If any local agent, clerk or dealer or other 
person handling or selling the shoes adopted under the 
provisions of this act shall demand, or receive, more 
than the retail or contract price for any of the shoes 
herein provided for, he shall be guilty of a misdemeanor 
and upon conviction, shall for each offense be punished 
by a fine of not less than fifty ($50) dollars nor more 
than five hundred ($500.00) dollars." 

The State Uniformity Compulsory School Shoe 
law contains a drastic article providing heavy penalties 
for any person "convicted of bribing or attempting to 
bribe" any member of the State Uniform School 
Commission. 

The Bulletin further set forth the details for supply- 
ing the authorized Every Day School Shoes. 

A list of the authorized local dealers where the Every 
Day School Shoes must be purchased. 

The contract prices of the various sizes of shoes are 
given and purchasers are instructed to see that the 
prices are stamped on each shoe, and that under no 



322 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

circumstances must more than the contract price be 
paid. 

The exchange price is explained to be the amount in 
cash to be paid when an old pair of shoes worn by the 
school pupil and in good wearable condition is offered 
in exchange as part payment for a pair of Every Day 
School Shoes. The exchange price is also stamped on 
the soles of the shoes. 

The allowance for the pupil's worn shoes would be 
about one-third of the retail price. 

The exchange privilege is extended to but one 
exchange for any one school pupil, and to one year from 
October 1st. 

Notwithstanding the statements in the governor's 
speeches and in the administration newspaper and 
the country weeklies praising the State Uniformity 
School Shoe Law, there are many complaints from the 
school patrons when the time comes to purchase a 
complete outfit of the adopted and authorized school 
shoes. They find little comfort in the liberal exchange 
price offered in the face of the fact that the shoes they 
are required to exchange, meet the school pupil's 
needs fully as well as the new ones, and would last 
fully as long. 

They ask, "What is the sense of requiring one to 
purchase a new pair of shoes when he has a perfectly 
good pair that answers every purpose.^" These hard 
headed parents can see no sense in the answer that, 
"It is very important that all the children in the schools 
of the state wear uniform shoes." And furthermore, 
"It is the law!" 

After considerable confusion and delay, occasioned 
by the misjudgment of the county depositories in 
ordering the various sizes in lengths and widths of shoes 



STATE UNIFORMITY OF SCHOOL BOOKS 323 

and the quantity necessary to "supply all the children 
in the public schools," and the inability of the Excelsior 
Paper Insole Shoe Company, on account of "Labor 
troubles" to manufacture enough shoes in the short 
time allowed to supply all the dealers in the state, the 
situation eased up and most of the school pupils were 
fitted out with State Uniformity Every Day School 
Shoes. 

It is not long, however, before there are complaints 
from all over the state that the Every Day School 
Shoes are not "well made," that the inner soles are 
paper, and that the State Uniformity School Shoes are 
not up to the standard of quality of shoes they had been 
purchasing from their regular shoe dealers. 

These complaints become so numerous and ominous 
that the governor finds it necessary to call the State 
Uniformity School Shoe Commission into extra session 
to consider these complaints. 

The Excelsior Paper Insole Company is represented 
both by the oflScials of that corporation and by at- 
torney, the governor's campaign manager. 

After a day's executive session the commission 
adjourned. Announcement was formally made that 
the governor and the State Uniformity School Shoe 
Commission had made a full investigation of the com- 
plaints regarding the State Uniformity School Shoe 
adopted and introduced for wear in all the public 
schools of the state. 

It finds that these complaints, what there are of 
them, have been "worked up" by the agents of disap- 
pointed shoe manufacturers to discredit the State 
Uniformity School Shoe Law, and the State Uniformity 
School Shoe Commission! While it is true that the 
Every Day School Shoe does have a moisture absorbing 



324 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

paper inner sole, this fact was explained to the com- 
mission by the representative of the Excelsior Paper 
Insole School Shoe Company, and was considered a 
strong point in favor of the adoption of this shoe! 

The samples of shoes sent in for examination show 
"unusual wear and rough usage," but are in every 
case found to be made according to the standard of the 
oflScial sample filed with the bid. 

The contractors proved to the satisfaction of the 
commission, that they were using every precaution 
to fulfill every condition of their contract with the 
state fully and liberally. That every pair of shoes is 
carefully inspected before being "passed" for packing, 
and every precaution taken that every shoe is perfect. 
"It will be gratifying to all friends to know that the 
governor has received literally hundreds of letters and 
newspaper clippings from all over the state praising 
the State Uniformity School Shoe Law, and the action 
of the State Uniformity School Shoe Commission in 
choosing so good a shoe." 

Patrons are warned against paying attention to 
any of this malicious propaganda. 

This formal announcement goes the rounds of the 
newspapers of the state. The patrons who had been 
"indiscreet" enough to protest asked themselves 
"What's the use?" 

The State Uniformity School Shoes are introduced; 
all of the "second hand" shoes are gathered up and 
shipped out of the state so there are no other school 
shoes left with which comparisons can be made. The 
public settles down with the consolation that it is only 
for five years and by that time it may be given relief. 

The announcement that the governor had purchased 
a beautiful town site and that he planned to build a 



STATE UNIFORMITY OF SCHOOL BOOKS 325 

great house upon it, ground for which would probably 
be broken early in April, is received by those who 
know him best as a most interesting and significant 
news item. 

It is currently reported, although not published in 
the newspapers, that the state auditor is making many 
substantial improvements down on his country home 
place, in the way of buildings, blooded live stock, etc. 
It is generally noted that his wife and daughter enter 
much more actively into the social life of the city, and 
that they make frequent shopping trips in preparation 
for the activities of the approaching social season. 

The governor's spokesman on the State Uniformity 
School Shoe Commission, in recognition of his executive 
ability is appointed superintendent of the State Insti- 
tution for the Blind, a lucrative and so far as political 
appointments go, a fairly permanent position. 

The two remaining members who, while looked 
upon as good loyal administration men, are merely 
"minority" members, little further was heard of them. 

Now that we have stated this suppositional State 
Compulsory Uniform School Shoe proposition, let us 
analyze it and its workings from a purely dollar and 
cents stand point. The pretexts and subterfuge used 
by the lobbyists in their arguments for the passage of 
the Compulsory State Uniformity School Shoe Law, 
were that the people were being swindled and over- 
charged for every pair of shoes purchased for the pupils 
attending the public schools; that by the adoption 
of a uniform standard school shoe the state would be 
able to make a wholesale saving to the patrons of the 
public schools; that by putting the manufacturers of 
compulsory uniform State School Shoes under heavy 



326 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

bonds and binding them up in an iron clad contract, 
the people would be guaranteed a uniform standard 
quality and an ample supply of shoes; and that it 
would greatly simplify the work of teachers and super- 
visors to have all the children in all the schools wearing 
uniform shoes. 

First of all, we must not forget that all the children 
attending school were wearing shoes at the time this 
law was passed and signed by the governor in "response 
to a state wide demand on the part of the people for 
relief from the school shoe trust"; that not less than 
seventy-five (75) per cent of all the school children in 
the state were supplied with one or more pairs of shoes 
that would serve them until they needed larger sized 
shoes, and for that reason, were not in need of new 
shoes. The remaining twenty -five (25) per cent would 
need new shoes before starting to school. 

The simple proposition is that three-fourths of all 
the school children who are well supplied with good 
wearing shoes chosen and purchased by their parents 
from their regular family shoe dealer, must discard 
their perfectly good shoes and exchange them for a 
pair of the legally adopted compulsory State Uniform 
Paper Insole School Shoes, and pay the exchange price 
in cash. 

For the purpose of demonstration, let us take a 
concrete case. There are four children of a family in 
school, one, in the first grade, or year; one, in the third 
grade; one, in the fifth grade; and one, in the eighth 
grade. Let us suppose that the contract prices of the 
sizes of the Every Day School Shoes for the cor- 
responding grades as published in the Compulsory 
Uniformity State School Shoe Bulletin, were as follows: 



STATE UNIFORMITY OF SCHOOL BOOKS 



327 





First 


Third 


Fifth 


Eighth 




Grade 


Grade 


Grade 


Grade 


Retail price 


$2.50 


$3.00 


$4.00 


$5.00 


Exchange price 


1.66 


2.00 


2.66 


3.33 


Allowance for old shoes 


.84 


1.00 


1.34 


1.68 


Regular wholesale price of same 










shoes outside of this state 


1.65 


2.00 


2.65 


3.30 



By comparing these regular wholesale prices with 
the exchange prices stamped on the soles of the shoes, 
it will be seen that they are practically the same. 
In other words, the manufacturer of the Every Day 
School Shoes gets substantially his usual wholesale 
price at which he sells shoes to regular shoe dealers 
everywhere, and a perfectly good pair of used shoes in 
addition. 

The favored shoe contractor gets his full price for 
every pair of shoes sold under contract in the state 
whether exchanged or sold outright. The only apparent 
saving on the retail price of the compulsory Uniform 
State School shoes is about 10% which the state school 
shoe law takes from the retail shoe dealers of the state. 

These local business men, taxpayers and patrons 
of the public schools are compelled by law to sell school 
shoes at a gross profit of not to exceed 15% above the 
net contract price. He commits a misdemeanor if he 
does. Any business man knows that a retail business 
can not be done on a 15% margin of profit. 

The parents of these school children had made an 
inventory of the school shoes of their children. They 
found that three of the children had perfectly good 
shoes, the ones in the first, the third, and eighth grades; 
and that the one in the fifth grade must have a new pair. 

If there had been no "change in school shoes" and 
the pupils had been permitted to go right on with the 
shoes they had, but one new pair of shoes would have 



328 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

been needed to "outfit" these four children for school. 
The parents would have paid something like four 
dollars and twenty-five cents for this new pair at their 
regular shoe dealer. They would have had the privi- 
lege and the inherent personal right of choosing a pair 
of shoes for their child to wear. 

But because of the Compulsory Uniform State 
School Shoe Law, that had been enacted through the 
manipulation of the Excelsior Paper Insole School 
Shoe lobby, these parents must discard their three 
children's shoes in good wearable condition, and in 
addition to buying one pair of school shoes for the child 
who needed a pair of shoes, they must purchase three 
additional pairs of the state adopted Every Day School 
Shoes. 

By reference to the prices as published in the Com- 
pulsory Uniform State School Shoe OflScial Bulletin, 
the prices paid for re-outfitting the children of this 
fairly typical family with the authorized school shoes 
follows : — 

The youngest child surrenders her unauthorized 
pair of shoes in "good wearable condition" and is 
charged the contract exchange price for a new pair, 
$1.66. 

The third grade boy, exchanges his perfectly good 
shoes and $2.00 in cash for a new pair of shoes for 
his grade. 

The little girl in the fifth grade buys a new pair 
and having no shoes in good wearable condition to 
exchange, she pays the contract retail price, $4.00. 

The daughter in the eighth grade has school shoes 
"as good as new," but as they are outlawed, her parents 
must exchange them and purchase a pair of the state 
artificial monopoly school shoes and pay $3 . 33. 



STATE UNIFORMITY OF SCHOOL BOOKS 329 

This family's school shoe bill is $10 . 99 and three 
good pairs of shoes in "usuable condition," 

The Compulsory Uniform State school shoe law 
created a market for the Excelsior Paper Insole School 
Shoe Company for jour pairs of shoes where the eco- 
nomic law of supply and demand would have required 
but one pair! 

Had the parents and the daughter been permitted 
to purchase her shoes from a regular stock at their 
own shoe dealer's, they probably would have paid 
anywhere from four-fifty to five dollars for a pair of 
shoes of their own choosing. 

Let us say that they purchase a pair for four dol- 
lars and fifty cents. In this particular case, the father's 
shoe bill was increased just 144 2-9%; and the outfit 
of three pairs of new shoes which were not needed will 
serve only the same purpose as the three pairs dis- 
carded. 

The Compulsory Uniformity state monopoly advo- 
cate asks if it is not true that this father left to his own 
responsibility and the influence of his wife and daughter, 
did not pay fifty cents more than he would have paid 
for the corresponding compulsory uniformity school 
shoe "adopted" for him by the Compulsory Uniform 
State School Shoe Commission? 

Let the parent, the only person who has a right to a 
hearing on the subject answer the question. 

"First of all, my daughter would not choose the 
Every Day School Shoe at any price, I agree with her. 
The pair of shoes of our own choice suits our purpose 
better and I am willing to pay the extra price for the 
privilege of choosing for myself." 

"In the second place, my shoe dealer is my friend. 
We have traded with him for years. We have found 



330 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

him reliable and dependable. In the few instances 
where a pair of shoes has not proved satisfactory, we 
have found him ready to "make it right." He is one 
of the substantial business men of our town, a tax 
payer, and a good citizen. I believe in the old fashioned 
policy, 'Live and let live.' " 

As the contract for school shoes expires in June, 
and there is a new governor and he has appointed a new 
Compulsory Uniform State School Shoe Commission, 
the administration political paper has stated editorially 
that there has been wide spread dissatisfaction with 
the Every Day School Shoes. The general complaint 
seems to be that these shoes are rather "stiff and heavy", 
the sizes and weights are not suited to the ages (poorly 
graded) of the children, and everybody seems sick and 
tired of the Every Day School Shoes and wants a 
change ! 

Doubtless the reader has thought and is thinking, 
"How absurd and ridiculous this idea of a Compul- 
sory Uniform State School Shoe Law is!" 

On the contrary, it is a perfectly sane and practica- 
ble economic proposition, when compared with the Com- 
pulsory Uniformity School Book Laws foisted upon the 
people of at least twenty-four states of the United States ! 

There has not been a single argument used by the 
school book publishers and their political lobyists in 
favor of the passage by the various state legislatures 
of compulsory state uniformity schoolbook laws; 
that might not have been urged in favor of the passage 
of compulsory state uniform school shoe laws. 

As a matter of fact, there are more plausible argu- 
ments that might be advanced in favor of compulsory 
state uniformity in school shoes, than the stock argu- 
ments in favor of state uniformity in schoolbooks. 



STATE UNIFORMITY OF SCHOOL BOOKS 331 

School shoes are necessary for the physical comfort 
of the wearer and as an article of dress for the feet. Any 
sordid political graft that might interfere with the 
natural laws of demand and supply, while it might 
seem to be an officious interference with the inherent 
responsibility and rights of those of us who must 
provide their children with school shoes, nevertheless 
all the harm that it could do would have to do with the 
children's /ee^. 

On the other hand, school books are the repositories 
of the material and method so essential in the training 
of the mind! 

"Of the three factors in every school, building and 
equipment, teachers and text books, it can hardly be 
said that text books constitute the factor of least 
importance. Frequently the text book is the teacher, 
while the man or woman called the teacher is only a 
kind of taskmaster driving the children through the 
pages of the books," so says Dr. P. P. Claxton, U. S. 
Commissioner of Education, in Bulletin 1915 number 
36, United States Bureau of Education. 

There is another very potent factor of vital import 
to thousands of boys and girls most in need of the 
"Elements of a common school education", and that is 
the time element! 

There are comparatively few favored boys and 
girls who have the time or the means to enable them to 
dawdle along for eight years in the grades, four years in 
high school and four years in college. Our ideals are 
all right as laid out in our elaborate education system, 
but the facts are that the great majority of our boys 
and girls cannot and do not attend school long enough 
or regularly enough to get beyond the sixth grade. 
How precious are the short "school days" to this large 



332 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

majority of boys and girls, and how vital to the welfare 
of the Nation! 

How dare we allow scheming, selfish interests 
to cheapen, curtail and limit a free distribution and 
sale of the best school books obtainable for the use of 
these boys and girls whose time for getting the little 
education they are to get is so short ! 

What moral right have our law-makers, under the 
influence of a conscienceless lobby, topass a law making 
it a criminal offense for "Any teacher who shall use or 
permit to be used in his or her school any book other 
than the one adopted by the said State Uniformity 
School Book Commission, after said books have been 
supplied by the contractor, shall be guilty of a mis- 
demeanor and upon conviction shall be punished as 
provided for in the preceding section, and such 
conviction shall operate as a cancellation of said 
teacher's license, and contract with the school district, 
and said person shall not again be licensed to teach 
in the public schools of the state!" 

A half grown country boy is struggling along as 
best he can, between the seasons when his services are 
required on the farm, for an education. It is probably 
his last term of school. He has the same grammar, 
arithmetic, geography and United States history he 
bought and studied the year before. As he expresses 
it, "I'm pretty well along in my books and I would 
like to keep on in school and finish them up this term. 
I got as far as percentage in my arithmetic, syntax in my 
grammar, Asia, in my geography, and the Civil War 
in my history and was getting on fine when I had to 
quit school last spring." 

But after the fall work is done and he presents 
himself at school with his last year's school books, the 



STATE UNIFORMITY OF SCHOOL BOOKS 333 

teacher is forced to tell this ambitious young man that 
his good friends and teachers have been outlawed and 
that it is now a criminal offense for her to permit him 
to continue his studies in arithmetic, grammar, geog- 
raphy and United States history from his school books 
on those subjects. 

The young man, being of a practical turn of mind, 
and possessed of his share of that every day common 
good sense, the very foundation of our institutions, 
demurred. The teacher can offer no sensible answer 
to his arguments that he be permitted to finish his 
studies in the books he has been using and with which 
he has become familiar. 

All she can say is that it is against the law, and 
that she would commit a criminal act if she "permitted 
to be used" any of his books. That he will have to 
provide himself with the newly adopted uniform books 
before she can admit him to school. 

"Ah! well," says this perfectly normal American 
boy, nearing manhood with all the responsibilities of an 
American citizen, "If I can't use my perfectly good 
books, I won't go to the trouble and the expense of 
buying new books. I will go to work and give up 
school." 

The school book publishers "got" their contracts 
for furnishing for exclusive and uniform use a new 
series of school books, the go between "Kibosh" poli- 
ticians "got theirs," but our American boy never got 
beyond 'percentage in Arithmetic, Syntax in grammar, 
Asia in Geography, and the Civil War in United States 
history, and he never reached the Constitution of the 
United States!! 



CHAPTER XII 

The Futility of Schoolbook Legislation 

As stated before, the root of all the ills and abuses 
in the exploitation of schoolbooks, is in the legal pro- 
vision for a compulsory uniform series of schoolbooks, 
whether it be for a school, school district, township, 
town, county, city or state. 

Every state has passed laws of some sort, pre- 
scribing the method of selecting schoolbooks, and 
regulating their introduction and use. These laws 
were ostensibly passed to protect the school patrons 
from too frequent changes in schoolbooks, and from 
paying excessive prices. 

On account of the riot of excesses, and abuses 
practiced by the schoolbook publishers in the 80's and 
90's, there was much dissatisfaction and complaint 
among the people over the frequent changes and the 
methods of the schoolbook publishers and their agents 
in bringing about these changes. 

There was more dissatisfaction, and unrest over 
the frequent changes than over the matter of expense. 
The fact being that most of the changes complained of, 
were made on an even exchange basis. 

An agent of one of these sordid exploiters would 
drive up to a schoolbuilding with a wagon load of his 
schoolbooks and blandly inform the teacher that he 
had to come to "take up" all the old schoolbooks and to 
leave new ones in place of them. 

He would ask the teacher to have the pupils gather 
up all their old books and place them on their desks. 

334 



FUTILITY OF SCHOOLBOOK LEGISLATION 335 

Then he and his driver would proceed to exchange book 
for book, subject for subject, regardless of the condi- 
tion of the used books. They would see to it that the 
teacher had new desk copies, and they were as careful 
to see to it that the desk copies of their competitor's 
books were taken up. 

The old books were all gathered up and packed 
away in the empty boxes in the wagon. The exchange 
completed, and another school added to the "holdings" 
of this publisher, the agent drove on to the next school 
building. 

The children of course, were delighted with their 
new books and as they had "cost them nothing," the 
parents had no objection to the transaction, following 
the old adage: — "Even exchange is no robbery!" 

These "Wrecking crews" were systematically 
organized. The agent in charge would hire all the 
available rigs at all the livery stables in the county, 
regardless of whether he would need to use them or not, 
as a defensive measure in the event that his "hated 
rival" should "get wind" of what he was doing, and 
should undertake to start a defensive campaign. 

So well were these predatory campaigns planned 
and executed, that a whole county would be "cleaned 
up" before the agent of the injured competitor would 
find it out, although he and his "wrecking crews" 
might be carrying on a similar campaign in an adjoining 
county. 

It was no uncommon occurrence for the schoolbooks 
to be even exchanged three and four times during one 
school term, and at the end of the term the same books, 
except that they were new copies, were in the hands of 
the children and the teacher that they had at the 
beginning ! 



336 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

As might be expected with each change of books 
there was a disarrangement of the regular work causing 
confusion in the minds of the children. 

This interference with the regular continuity of 
school work was the basis for vigorous protests on the 
part of the parents and teachers. 

These even exchange book fights like most fights 
were short if not decisive. They ended in a truce or an 
armistice. 

Like all war, the even exchange schoolbook fights, 
proved to be disastrously expensive to the schoolbook 
publishers, especially to the smaller ones who usually 
lost more holdings than they gained. The larger and 
stronger predatory houses usually started these even 
exchange fights upon some flimsy pretext against some 
smaller active competitor who was getting more 
business away from it than it cared to lose. 

The agents of the largest predatory publisher 
held the threat of "lifting their books" out of a few 
good places as a club over the heads of competing 
agents, unless they would promise to "let up" on their 
promotive activities. 

It is evident that these truces and agreements were 
not entered into in the interest of the purchasers and 
users of schoolbooks. 

The sinister exploitations were pushed as vigorously 
as before. The difference being that whenever a 
change of books was made, the victims were required 
to trade in their old books and to pay an "exchange 
price" in addition for the new books. This "exchange 
price" of books is what the schoolbook trade calls 
"Regular introductory terms." 



FUTILITY OF SCHOOLBOOK LEGISLATION 837 

Here we have the milk in the cocoanut: — "Com- 
pulsory uniformity of schoolbooks," at "Regular 
Introductory Terms!" 

Any proposition of "exchange of schoolbooks," 
is a delusion and a snare from the standpoint of the 
pupils and their parents . The sole purpose of ' 'exchange 
of schoolbooks" is to gather up all the competing 
books and get them "out of the way," as one of the 
partners of probably the most ruthless exploiting 
schoolbook publisher expressed it. For illustration, 
let us examine the "even exchange" transaction out- 
lined above. 

The pupils in a school are all provided with books 
for their present needs. 

In every family there are any number of surplus 
schoolbooks all of the particular "series" that have 
been in regular use; and all of them for all practicable 
purposes, as good as new. Some of these may be loaned 
to a neighbor's children, or they may be awaiting the 
needs of younger children. 

The "even exchange" only took the old books then 
in actual use of the "same subject and grade"; but it 
put all the other surplus books "out of commission," 
and out of competition because another series of books 
is in use, and the school textbook law prohibits the use 
of any other than the adopted schoolbook. 

When these pupils have completed their books, 
they must all be provided with new books of the next 
higher grade. There are no surplus books of the new 
series in the family or the neighborhood awaiting to 
serve their needs. New books must be purchased for 
all the pupils to supply their advancing needs. 



338 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

Where the change in books is made at "Regular 
Introductory Terms," the awakening from the delusion 
is in the nature of a shock! 

The parent has to exchange each of the books his 
children were using, and to pay the "exchange prices" 
in addition, so he has to give a book, and buy a book of 
the same subject and grade, and the new book will only 
serve the same purpose as the discarded book. The 
pupils have to be provided with two books on the same 
subject and grade, where either one would have served 
better than two ! 

The publisher is assured a large sale at the begin- 
ning of the new term, because there are no old books 
to be passed on, and all those promoted will have to 
purchase new books. 

This will be found to be true for each succeeding 
promotion of classes for three or four years. By this 
time there will begin to be an accumulation of used 
books in the community. These books will begin to 
find their way in increasing numbers into the hands of 
the pupils of each new class formed by promotion. The 
sales of new books are correspondingly less in number. 

The schoolbook publisher who has enjoyed the 
monopoly of supplying all the schoolbooks, finds his 
sales of books gradually decreasing after the third 
year of his contract. 

This fact explains why all these compulsory uniform 
schoolbook laws provide for a change of schoolbooks 
not oftener than every five or six years. The school- 
book publishers have seen to it that provision was made 
in these laws for a change of books at about the time 
the schools, and the community become well stocked 
with the authorized and adopted books. 



FUTILITY OF SCHOOLBOOK LEGISLATION 339 

The dissatisfaction and complaints of the patrons 
of the schools over the "frequent and unnecessary 
changes of books" were seized upon by wily and self- 
seeking politicians as campaign issues. These fellows 
made their appeal for votes upon the schoolbook ques- 
tion. They waxed eloquent in their recital of the evil 
practices of the gigantic schoolbook "trust." They 
explained in detail how thousands upon thousands, 
yes, millions of dollars were wrested from the pockets 
of the people. They promised, if elected, to introduce 
bills and work for their enactment into laws which 
would regulate and control the introduction and sale 
of schoolbooks, and protect the school patrons against 
the burdens of changes of books and extortionate 
prices. 

These demagogs vied with one another in their 
extravagant and irresponsible statements. Some of 
these statements promised to save their constituents 
more money than they had ever paid for schoolbooks. 

The schoolbook plank in the platforms served the 
purpose intended. These fellows were elected, and of 
course, they must do something to fulfil their promises 
to the people. 

The result was that schoolbook bills were introduced 
into the legislatures of most of the states providing 
for all sorts of regulation and control of the schoolbook 
business. The proposed schoolbook laws provided 
for: — 

1. State adoption of a compulsory uniform series of 
schoolbooks with fixed maximum prices. 

2. State adoption of a compulsory uniform series of 
schoolbooks at prices as low as the same books 
were sold or offered for sale to any other state, 
county, school district or individual. 



340 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

3. State manufacture of sehoolbooks to be sold to 
pupils at cost. 

4. State manufacture, the work to be done by con- 
vict labor and the books sold at cost. 

5. County uniformity of sehoolbooks. 

6. Boards of Education, and school directors, or 
trustees required to adopt a uniform series of 
sehoolbooks for use in all the schools of the dis- 
trict. 

7. Requiring all schoolbook publishers before offer- 
ing their books for sale to any schools of the 
state, to file samples of their books with the state 
superintendent of schools together with the prices 
at which they proposed to sell the books to 
schools or to dealers, and to furnish an aflSdavit 
that the prices are the usual prices and that 
they are as low as the prices of the same books 
sold elsewhere in the United States, and to fur- 
nish a heavy bond to the state obligating the 
publisher to sell the books at those prices for 
a stipulated period of years. 

8. Authorizing school boards, school trustees, or 
county or state boards to adopt and purchase 
sehoolbooks and furnish them free to the pupils. 

While these bills were introduced and championed 
ostensibly to give relief to the plundered school patrons 
and to fulfill pre-election promises, the real motive, in 
the majority of cases was to "shake down" the school- 
book publishers. 

Much of the radical and vicious schoolbook legisla- 
tion came through bills introduced for "sand bagging" 
purposes with no thought that they would be enacted 
into laws. The professional lawyer politicians, paid 



FUTILITY OF SCHOOLBOOK LEGISLATION 341 

lobbyists, and the "grey wolves," members of the 
legislatures not in politics "for their health," had these 
bills introduced to "start something." This "some- 
thing" was to alarm the schoolbook publishers and 
thus create a demand for political influence to kill these 
vicious bills in committee. 

Schoolbook bills were but a small part of the "sand 
bagging" bills introduced through the same channels. 
There were a full "grist" of proposed legislation 
pertaining to railroad regulation, grain inspection, 
Pullman car rates, street car franchises, gas, electric 
light and power, telegraph, and telephone rates, life 
insurance, fire and marine insurance, banks and bank- 
ing. These different "interests" were supposed to 
maintain an influential lobby and to provide it with 
well stuffed wallets. 

Some of these bills would be so ridiculous and 
preposterous in their provisions that the "interest" 
at which they were aimed was inclined to treat them 
as a joke and would pay little attention to them. 

When these statesmen (?) felt that there was a 
lack of interest in their "sand bagging" bills, they 
would promptly have the obnoxious bill or bills 
advanced a stage nearer final passage. If this did not 
have the desired effect, these legislative high binders 
would decide that "those fellows will have to be taught 
a lesson," and they would decide to pass the obnoxious 
bills. 

It has been an open secret all these years that the 
first compulsory state uniformity schoolbook laws in 
Kansas and in Indiana with their ridiculously low 
fixed prices, were passed as retaliatory measures against 
certain schoolbook publishers who failed to show 



342 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

sufficient concern over the passage of these obnoxious 
measures. 

One of the outstanding anomalies in the working 
of our civic opportunities and responsibihties is the 
lethergy and indifference of the people to the character 
and political fitness of candidates for the two houses of 
the state legislature. 

Our own state laws and their enforcement have a 
more direct bearing upon the every day life and 
material welfare of the people of the state, than those of 
our national government. 

This story is told and generally credited, which may 
not be out of place here. 

At the session of the Illinois legislature which passed 
the notorious Allen bill providing for ninety-nine (99) 
year leases of the streets of Chicago to the Yerkes 
interests, a group of twelve (12) members, so the story 
goes, came into possession of five thousand ($5,000.00) 
dollars in cash each. It is the custom of the legislature 
to adjourn on Friday mornings in time to take the 
noon trains for the homes of the members. These 
members were uneasy with the thought of carrying so 
much money home with them, and they did not think 
it best to deposit it in a bank. 

One of the more experienced of the numbers had 
taken the precaution to rent a safety deposit box at one 
of the banks in Springfield for the safe-keeping of his 
valuables. He offered to permit his friends to put their 
money in his safety deposit box over the week end, 
which they were all pleased to do. They departed for 
their several homes much relieved in mind. 

The member who owned the safety deposit box 
never returned. He was taken sick at his home and 
died. 



FUTILITY OF SCHOOLBOOK LEGISLATION 343 

His widow came into legal possession of the key 
to the safety deposit box, and of course, the sixty- 
thousand ($60,000.00) dollars found in it. No one of 
the eleven who had left his five thousand ($5,000.00) 
dollars in the box for safe-keeping, ever came forward 
to lay claim to his roll. They no doubt felt that their 
friend and fellow member played a mean trick on them 
by dying during that particular week end recess. 

The state laws have to do with our moral and social 
relations, our property, education, institutions for the 
education and care of the blind, the deaf, the defective 
children, and for the treatment, care, and comfort of 
the insane; the courts of justice, our reformatory and 
penal institutions, the public highways, mines and 
mining, personal and property taxes, and the powers 
and limitation of powers granted to cities, towns, 
townships and villages. 

Every question pertaining to state government is of 
vital importance to the every day life and welfare of the 
people. 

The highest types of men and women should be 
chosen for seats in the state legislatures. 

As a result of the general apathy and indifference of 
the voters, too many of the seats in the legislative halls 
are occupied by self-seeking "practical" politicians; 
"N'er do well" lawyers whom no one who knew them, 
would entrust with an important case; and by callow 
lawyers anxious to gain experience and prestige. How 
many of these young men have had their prospects 
and hopes blasted through their associations for a term 
in the State Legislature! 

About the first thing these well enough meaning 
new members hear from the "wise" ones is, "If you 
expect to accomplish anything and to make a reputa- 



S44 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

tion for yourself, you will have to 'line up with the 
fellows who do things.' " 

It requires a high order of moral courage as well 
as physical courage for an ambitious young man to 
stand four square for his ideals through a session of a 
State Legislature. Theodore Roosevelt did it at 
Albany, when he was but twenty-two! 

There are many high minded able men in every 
state legislature. Fortunate for the welfare of the 
people of that state when these honest men are in a 
working majority. 

After this digression, let us return to our consider- 
ation of these various schoolbook laws to see just how 
much they have accomplished in correcting the abuses 
in the exploitation of the school patrons. 

They all agree in providing for, and perpetuating 
that artificial monopoly so sacred to the exploiting 
schoolbook publishers, a compulsory uniform series of 
schoolbooks adopted for a definite period. 

These schoolbook laws all make definite provisions 
for making "clean sweep" changes of schoolbooks at 
stated times, and provides the machinery for making 
these changes. 

They all agree in containing the compulsory pro- 
vision, making it a misdemeanor punishable by penal- 
ties ranging all the way from a fine to loss of position, 
teacher's certificate, and the right to teach again in the 
state, for a teacher to use or permit to be used any other 
book than the monopoly book. 

To secure the schoolbook publisher enjoying the 
artificial monopoly the utmost limit of sale of his 
book, the teacher must exclude a pupil from school who 
does not provide himself with the full quota of these 
adopted and authorized books. 



FUTILITY OF SCHOOLBOOK LEGISLATION 345 

The schoolbook publishers, or some of them are 
responsible for the enactment of most of these obnoxious 
schoolbook laws. In a number of states, the agents of 
one or another of the exploiting schoolbook publishers 
were credited with writing the bills! Be that as it 
may, there were none of the "saving clauses" omitted 
from the laws that would have been in them had the 
attorney of the most rapacious of the schoolbook 
publishers written the bill. 

The stock argument advanced by those favoring 
compulsory state uniformity in schoolbooks is the 
great saving of money for the patrons and taxpayers. 

Admitting that there is a slight saving on each copy 
of book purchased, this saving is only apparent, not 
real. 

The schoolbook publisher, who secures the artificial 
monopoly gets substantially his regular net whole- 
sale prices for his books. The difference in the pub- 
lishers regular list, or retail price at which single copies 
may be purchased at any retail book store anywhere, 
or at which the publisher will send it postage paid to 
anyone anywhere in the United States, and the contract 
retail price is substantially the difference between the 
book dealer's usual normal profit, and the low margin 
of profit, the law permits the authorized dealer to 
charge. 

In some of the states, the law allows the retail dealer 
to "add not exceeding 10% to the net contract whole- 
sale price," in other states, he is permitted to add 15%! 

The dealer's normal gross profit on schoolbooks is 
25%, and when compared with the usual normal profit 
on all other staple articles of merchandise, the profit 
on schoolbooks is found to be below the average. 



346 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

The fact is that 10% margm yields no profit at all. 
It does not pay expenses. 

The law makers of the state brazenly vote to take 
away from these neighborhood dealers more than one- 
half of their fair normal profits of doing business. 

Another fact that we must not lose sight of, if the 
representatives of the people do, is that these dealers 
scattered at convenient places in all the counties of the 
state are citizens and taxpayers of the state, and that 
they support in a substantial manner the schools they 
are forced by law to serve as an accommodation. 

The sum total saved to each purchaser of a First 
Reader, with all the machinery provided for in the 
Compulsory State Uniform Schoolbook Law is usually 
about five cents ! 

Two and eight-tenths cents is legislated out of the 
till of the dealer, and two and two-tenths cents from 
the publisher, ostensibly. The gross profit on a five 
cent package of chewing gum is one and a half cents; 
and yet governors, state superintendents of schools, 
and members of state legislatures have made the great 
saving of the people on schoolbooks their campaign 
slogan before election! 

But these wiley politicians neglected to explain to 
the plain people, that they would have to purchase 
four times as many schoolbooks after the enactment of 
their compulsory state uniformity schoolbook law as 
they would have been called upon to purchase had the 
monopolistic schoolbook law not been enacted. 

In a state, county, city, village, or rural school 
district, where the uniform series of books has been in 
use long enough to become normally stocked with the 
books in use, there will be nearly as many copies of 
discarded schoolbooks in the homes of the people as 



FUTILITY OF SCHOOLBOOK LEGISLATION 347 

are in actual use in the hands of the pupils. Every 
family that has had children in school, has a number of 
discarded schoolbooks. These books are in as good 
average physical condition as the average public 
library book in circulation. 

The great expenditure for schoolbooks of which the 
patrons complain is not the high prices paid for books, 
but the fact that so large a number of schoolbooks are 
used by but one or at most two children. Very few 
schoolbooks are used until they are worn out. 

Under any compulsory uniformity scheme, books 
are changed to prevent the use of these available 
surplus books with which the pupils and teachers have 
become accustomed. 

Let us illustrate the practical working of a change 
in schoolbooks. Under normal school conditions 
where there is no state law creating and protecting a 
monopoly in schoolbooks, or where the monopoly 
has been in full swing for over four years, a new class 
of twenty-four pupils which has been promoted to an 
advanced book in arithmetic for instance, and these 
pupils have been notified before hand to provide them- 
selves with the advanced book, at least eighteen will 
inherit books from an older brother or sister, or will 
have purchased or borrowed books from neighbors. 

Six pupils probably from preference, will purchase 
new books. Any teacher will substantiate the state- 
ment that six new books out of twenty-four is a fair 
proportion. 

But it is evident that if a "clean sweep" change has 
been made at this time or a year before even, twenty- 
four new arithmetics will have been purchased instead 
of six. 



348 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

This is the way it works in one class in one school. 
Extend the illustration to include all the schools in a 
state, and one can imagine that the boast of a school- 
book publisher that he shipped a train load of arith- 
metics for first introduction into a certain state, was 
justified. 

This favored publisher has an exclusive monopoly of 
all the schoolbooks used in all the schools of the state 
for five years. He can manufacture his books in large 
editions, ship them in car load lots, and he is at no 
expense for salaries and travelling expenses of sales- 
men. 

To be sure, it may not be known exactly what 
share of the amount received from his sales of books 
he may have to pay as "commissions" to the political 
influence through whom the monopoly contract was 
secured ! 

We do know for a certainty that all the school- 
books that the people of the state had purchased and 
in their possession at the time of the adoption of the 
Compulsory State Uniform schoolbooks were out- 
lawed; that all the school children in the state were 
compelled to trade in the books they had at the time, 
and their parents had to pay the exchange prices for 
the monopoly books; that the year following when the 
children were promoted every one of them had to 
purchase new books as all the available used books 
that they might have used were outlawed; that the 
•people were forced to purchase fully four times the 
number of books; and that there were gathered up and 
shipped out of the state a "train load" of perfectly 
good schoolbooks; and we may be morally certain that 
the books adopted and introduced will all be changed 
again at the end of the adoption period. 



FUTILITY OF SCHOOLBOOK LEGISLATION 349 

The history of Compulsory Uniformity State adop- 
tions has shown that state textbook commissions are 
ever ready and wilHng to change books. This was the 
intent and object of those who had the schoolbook laws 
passed. 

The State Textbook Board of Indiana has the 
reputation of being about as stable and conservative 
as any of the state textbook committees of the Compul- 
sory State Uniformity monopoly schoolbook states. 

That august body has made "clean sweep" changes 
of arithmetics four times in twenty years ; and of books 
in other subjects in about the same proportion. 

The action of the state textbook commission of 
Alabama in 1918 serves as a good illustration of the 
absence of any consideration of the people and the 
educational interests of the state when seized by the 
urge to change schoolbooks. 

At that time we were in the midst of the world 
war. The odds along the Hindenburg line were 
against our allies. Haig was fighting with his back to 
the wall. 

Our government backed by the patriotic men and 
women of the country, yes, and by the school children, 
was putting forth gigantic efforts in transporting men 
and provisions, supplies and equipment, besides food, 
munitions, and fuel for our allies and their people. 
The railroads, the factories, the farms, the mines and 
the forests were working under the strain of urgent 
necessity to meet the demands upon us to help win the 
war. 

The Government Director of Conservation of the 
Fuel Administration was summoning the officials of 
many different lines of essential industry to Washing- 
ton in conference "to consider ways of eliminating 



350 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

wastes and curtailing the consumption of fuel and 
paper." 

The schoolbook publishers were summoned in 
conference on April 30. The seriousness of the critical 
situation was set forth in detail. The railroads were 
over burdened with freight; there was a serious shortage 
of coal, mainly because the railroads were unable to 
haul it; every locomotive and every freight car, flat 
car, and coal car was needed for the transportation of 
war materials and food for transport across the seas. 

These gentlemen were told the amount of coal it 
took to make a ton of paper. The coal had to be 
hauled from the mines to the paper mills. The pub- 
lishers were asked, "What can you gentlemen do to 
eliminate wastes and curtail the consumption of coal 
and paper?" 

It was suggested that the Fuel Administration, or 
other proper Federal authority, request the governors 
of all the states to instruct Boards of Education of 
their respective states to permit no changes of text- 
books nor the exchange of books then in use for other 
books on the same subjects during the period of the 
war. 

It was urged that the standards of instruction in 
no subject taught in the schools would be lowered by 
continuing the use of the adopted textbooks for another 
five years if necessary; that any change in methods of 
teaching, special stress upon any topic, or additional 
data or material could be supplied by supplementary 
books, or through bulletins that could be issued from 
time to time. 

These suggestions were not received kindly by a 
number of the predatory publishers. They were 



FUTILITY OF SCHOOLBOOK LEGISLATION 351 

unwilling to forego any prospect of mercenary exploita- 
tion even to help win the war. 

Alabama State Adoption in 1918 

Under these distressing and pressing conditions, the 
State Board of Education of Alabama decided that the 
time was propitious for making sweeping changes of 
schoolbooks. It proceeded to adopt a two book series 
of geographies, and a two book series of spelling books ! 

Keeping in mind the fact that the children in all the 
schools of the state were supplied with copies of a 
standard series of geographies, kept up to date by the 
publishers, and that every pupil in the state could have 
been supplied at the opening of schools in the fall of 
that eventful year with both geographies and spelling 
books from "stock on hand" in the state without the 
necessity of having but few new books shipped into the 
state, let us consider what actually did take place. 

First of all, the publishers of both the geographies 
and the spellers had to order a "train load" of paper 
from the paper mills from which to make a "train load" 
of geographies and spellers to displace a whole "train 
load" of perfectly good and so far as the children and 
their teachers were concerned, who were the actual 
parties at interest, perfectly satisfactory books. 

The paper mills had to order extra coal, the railroads 
had to release cars to transport the coal to the paper 
mills, the "train load" of paper had to be transported 
to the printers, and many car loads of binding board 
had to be transported to the book bindery. 

In September, at the very time when our boys were 
pushing their deadly and vigorous oifensive against 
their desperate enemies, and they were falling by 
thousands, and every agency of our Government was 



352 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

working night and day to get munitions, food, war 
materials, hospital supplies and men to the seaboard 
and over sea to our soldiers and their brave comrades 
in arms, the "train load" of superfluous schoolbooks was 
on its way from New York to Alabama. At every 
siding along the way, this train met and passed great 
trains loaded with army supplies working their way to 
New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, New Port News 
and Norfolk, patriotically intent on helping to "win the 
war.!" 

The other train was loaded with superfluous school- 
books on its way to feed the insatiable greed of the 
artificial monopoly created by the representatives of the 
people of Alabama in the interest of schoolbook pub- 
lishers and for the despoiling of their own people. It 
would hardly be claimed that there were any educa- 
tional or economic conditions justifying these ill-timed 
sweeping changes. 

The pretext offered at the time, so it was generally 
reported, was that the publishers who had enjoyed the 
monopoly of furnishing the books during the compul- 
sory state uniformity period then ending, declined to 
continue to furnish their geographies and spelling books 
at the old contract prices. That this was but a flimsy 
excuse is exposed by the fact that the State Board of 
Education contracted to pay higher prices for the new 
geographies than the publishers of the books with which 
the pupils of Alabama were supplied, asked for the few 
new books that might be required to continue those 
books in use for another five year period. 

Now the question of price had very little to do with 
it. The state of Alabama was "stocked up" with 
geographies and spelling books. There were substanti- 
ally enough books on these subjects to supply the needs 



FUTILITY OF SCHOOLBOOK LEGISLATION 353 

of each new class formed without the necessity of pur- 
chasing new ones except in small orders. As a result 
the sales of new books had "dwindled to almost 
nothing" and they would continue at a low ebb so long 
as these books were permitted to be used. The monopo- 
ly had ceased to be more than normally profitable, 
and therefore not worth putting the money and effort 
into it necessary to defend it, unless it could be allowed 
to substitute other books, or a different edition of the 
same books, necessitating a "clean sweep" exchange of 
the old books in the hands of the children. 

There are millions of dollars worth of perfectly good 
schoolbooks "exchanged" gathered up and destroyed 
every year to get them out of the way, and as many 
more, in the store rooms, closets and attics of families, 
outlawed every year. Every one of these books so 
wantonly destroyed contains the same lessons presented 
and explained in the same way as the new book pur- 
chased to take its place. The sole reason for the taking 
up and the distruction of these books is to artificially 
create a larger market for new books. All these new 
books, in their turn, will be displaced, gathered up and 
destroyed to make a worthwhile market for other 
favored publishers' books. 

We hear and read so much about the conservation 
of our natural resources in this country ! 

It is far from our intention to impugn the motives 
of the members of the State Board of Education of 
Alabama. Our criticisms are wholly impersonal. In 
all probability the results would have been similar had 
the personnel of the board been changed. 

The membership of these Statet Text Book Commis- 
sions, County Text Book Boards and City School 



354 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

Boards changes right along, but the actions of these 
boards remain practically the same. 

The conditions will not improve as long as human 
nature is a factor and the temptation remains. 

Mississippi Adoption of 1920 

Mississippi is another compulsory uniformity 
schoolbook ridden state. There was a schoolbook 
adoption in that state in 1920. 

Through some beneficent, presumably, influence 
the legislature of the state of Mississippi passed an 
amendment to their compidsory state uniformity 
schoolbook law, permitting the State Textbook Com- 
mission to contract for state monopoly schoolbooks 
at higher prices. This legal sanction made the "stakes" 
in the approaching textbook event worth while. The 
Text Book Commission proceeded to respond liberally 
to the insistent demands for a change of schoolbooks. 
They changed and introduced three books in geography, 
one in advanced arithmetic, two in agriculture, one in 
civics, three in United States history, three in language 
and grammar, three in physiology and hygiene, nine 
in Readers (basal) and eight in readers (supplemental). 

They were considerate enough of the school patrons, 
to re-contract for one Algebra, three arithmetics, four 
books and practice paper in drawing, one book in be- 
ginners history, two spelling books, one dictionary and 
the copy books. 

It is interesting to compare the prices in these two 
sister states whose textbook boards just had to change 
the schoolbooks while the changing was good. 

It so happens, accidents will happen, that the 
same arithmetics are used in both Alabama and 
Mississippi. The elementary arithmetic is 24 cents 



FUTILITY OF SCHOOLBOOK LEGISLATION 355 

in Alabama but 55 cents in Mississippi. The practical 
arithmetic is 42 cents in Alabama but 68 cents in 
Mississippi ! 

There would seem to be a wider range of difference 
in geographies. 

In Alabama the First Book in Geography costs fifty- 
five cents, while in Mississippi, Book One costs $1 . 16 
retail, $1.11 exchange and an old geography in "usable 
condition," to boot. The Second Book in Geog- 
raphy sells for $1 . 00 in Alabama, and Book Two 
in Geography at $1 . 80 in Mississippi ! Where the pupil 
is fortunate enough to own a perfectly good Second 
Book in Geography, he may save nine pennies by giving 
his Second Book in geography and $1 .71 in cash for a 
new Book Two in Geography. The essential difference 
between these two series of geographies is, that the 
Alabama Series distinguishes between the two books as 
First Book and Second Book, while in Mississippi the 
distinction between the two books of the series is that 
one is Book One, and the other is Book Two. 

It would be interesting to know all the inside work- 
ings of this extraordinary schoolbook adoption. The 
reports all agree that the adoption went off like well- 
oiled clockwork. 

Here again the people of the state of Mississippi, 
struggling with this great financial problem of provid- 
ing "ways and means" for the education of their 
children, and after all their efforts to improve their 
schools and school facilities, find their state school 
system at or near the foot of the educational lad- 
der. They are forced by the machinery provided by law 
to surrender all their schoolbooks and accept any- 
where from five to twenty -three cents a copy for them, 
and to purchase new books on the same "subject and 



856 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

grade" at prices ranging from fifty -five cents for a 
Primer to one dollar and eighty cents for a Geography ! 

That the people of Mississippi are struggling bravely 
with the problem of popular education is shown by the 
fact that Mississippi stands at the head of the list of 
all the states in the "Percentage of total population 
enrolled in the Elementary and High Schools," 27H%. 
The average for the United States being only 21 3^%. 

New York state with its highly crystalized and 
luxuriously expensive school system, enrolls but 18% 
of her total population in her Elementary and High 
Schools, public and private. 

But in everything that goes toward the support 
and maintenance of good schools, Mississippi finds 
herself at or near the foot of the list. She spends but 
ten dollars per pupil per year on her rural schools, and 
only eight cents a day for each day the pupil is in 
school. 

It costs the people in New York state fifty -five dol- 
lars a pupil per year attending her rural schools, and 
thirty cents a day for each pupil attending her rural 
schools. Too much of this cost however is absorbed 
before it ever reaches the rural schools. 

The average value of rural school property in Mis- 
sissippi per pupil enrolled is less than five dollars. The 
average for the United States is fifty -five dollars. 

The average annual salaries paid to rural teachers 
in Mississippi is about two hundred and sixty dollars, 
while the average for the whole country is about four 
hundred seventy -five dollars. 

In the average length of the school term Mississippi 
stands nearly up to the average for the whole country, 
eleven states, including Massachusetts and Illinois sup- 
porting a shorter school term. The average number of 



FUTILITY OF SCHOOLBOOK LEGISLATION 357 

school days in the term for the whole country being 
about 144 days, while Mississippi, maintains an average 
rural school term of 133 days! 

It is evident from the above showing that the good 
people of Mississippi are in favor of good schools, but 
they are working against great odds. They have a very 
large colored rural population, the land in large areas is 
poor and its assessed valuation is low, yielding but small 
revenue. 

There is every indication that if Mississippi had 
more money she would build more and better school 
buildings, provide better equipment, and pay her 
teachers better salaries. 

Under these discouraging conditions, it is little 
short of an economic crime for the political machinery 
of that state to outlaw all of the geographies, elementary 
civics. United States histories, language and grammars, 
physiology and hygienes, and readers purchased during 
seven years of struggle to keep their children in school, 
and to saddle the expense of purchasing a new outfit of 
schoolbooks at the highest prices ever paid for corre- 
sponding schoolbooks up to that time, upon the heavily 
burdened parents. For all practical purposes the 
outlawed books would have served the same purpose 
as the more costly new ones. 

There can be no valid reason neither from an 
educational nor an economic standpoint, for discarding 
a book or a series of schoolbooks on a given subject 
and substituting another book or series of books on the 
same subject. 

The children will get along just as well in the sub- 
ject of arithmetic with the series of books that has 
been in use seven years, and which has been re-adopted 



358 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

for five years longer as they would have done had 
another higher priced series been adopted. 

It is far from our intention to single out certain 
city, county, or state adoptions as being any worse than 
other city, county, or state adoptions. Our purpose 
has been to describe fairly typical cases. 

A recital of the history of state compulsory uni- 
formity schoolbook adoptions in Kentucky, West 
Virginia, Florida, Louisiana, Oklahoma and Kansas 
might be interesting and instructive if space permitted. 

An adequate account of the state adoptions in 
Texas, including the latest adoption and the purchase 
of a complete supply of free books for all the children 
of the public schools by the State Text Book Commis- 
sion, would require a whole chapter. 

This is what is known as the $4,000,000 . 00 school- 
book deal. It cost the taxpayers approaching that 
amount of money to purchase a new outfit of school- 
books. There probably was not more than $21,000,000 
spent in the whole United States for schoolbooks, 
including Texas for the school year 1921-22! 

The pathetic part of it is that the free textbooks 
might have been introduced at a saving of at least 
one half of that enormous amount of money. 

This story is told on a certain native up in the 
hill country of Kentucky. He bore the unsavory repu- 
tation of using the most profanely expressive language 
of any other man in the whole settlement. One day 
as he was driving up a steep hill with a wagon load of 
loose apples, giving his undivided attention to urging 
his uncertain team of horses by swearing at, and whip- 
ping them, the tail gate of the wagon fell out. Away 
rolled his apples. 



FUTILITY OF SCHOOLBOOK LEGISLATION 359 

The native felt the absence of his load, and glancing 
backward, saw his apples bouncing and rolling down 
the hill in every direction. He yelled "Whoa" with 
an oath, set his brake pole, turned round, and stood 
up in his wagon. He watched his precious apples 
rolling down the ravine, into the brush and briars, and 
laying scattered by the roadside. Some "razor back" 
hogs, scenting the fruit from afar, came grunting from 
the underbrush to the feast. This redoubtable char- 
acter felt his loss and chagrin keenly. He took a few 
deep breaths in preparation for a violent outburst 
of pent up rage. But to the astonishment, and relief, 
of the only "on looker," he quietly picked up his 
lines, resumed his seat, and was heard to mutter in a 
quiet voice, "What's the use-f^ I kane't do hit jestice! 
Giddap!" 

But after all it makes but little difference to the 
public how the monopoly is secured whether by honor- 
able or disreputable means, the results are the same. 

These flagrant abuses in the adoption, distribution, 
and introduction of schoolbooks will never be cor- 
rected until the conditions which invite them are 
removed. 

So long as whole states, counties, cities, and towns 
offer a monopoly of furnishing a book or a series of 
books to one company for a period of years, we may 
rest assured that schoolbook companies will go just 
as far as necessary to secure the monopoly. 



CHAPTER XIII 

A Solution of the Schoolbook Problem 

We have cited a sufficient number of school-book 
adoptions in states, counties, cities and school dis- 
tricts, it is hoped, to establish the fact that school-book 
adoptions are vicious proceedings, and that they are 
made principally in the interest of mercenary exploiters. 

The interests of the pupils, their parents and 
teachers, are but a pretext for these marauding raids 
upon the pocket books of the parents of the school 
children, or the public school funds. 

The mere recital of these flagrant abuses would 
serve no worthy purpose, unless some practicable con- 
structive suggestions may be offered looking to a 
correction of these abuses. 

It is the sole purpose of the writer to offer a solution 
to this vexed question in the interest of the better 
education of the pupils, better teaching on the part of 
the teachers, and a more single-hearted purpose on the 
part of those responsible for school administration. 

It must be remembered that these abuses have 
come to be regarded by school officials, parents and 
teachers, as a necessary evil and an established custom 
from which there is no escape. 

The schoolbook publishers have felt the burden of 
the abuses in the conduct of the school book business 
as keenly as the public, and numerous attempts have 
been made to correct the more flagrant ones by mutual 
agreement. 

860 



SOLUTION OF SCHOOLBOOK PROBLEM 361 

These have all ended in failure for the simple reason 
that some of the most rapacious of the school book pub- 
lishers would not agree to give up any of their preda- 
tory practices. 

The schoolbook publishers are practically agreed 
that they are powerless to change their reprehensible 
methods so long as the temptation to secure valuable 
contracts by such methods remains. 

As we have shown the root of the evil in the school- 
book business is the legal provision for compulsory 
uniformity of schoolbooks, whether for a school district, 
county, or state. 

A simple and effective remedy for correcting the 
many evils resulting from the exploitation of the 
schools, and the school patrons, by the artificial mono- 
poly created hy law for supplying a uniform series of 
schoolbooks for exclusive use in the public schools, 
would be: 

First, — To repeal all laws granting authority to, and 
making it the duty of textbook commissions, and 
boards of education, whether of a state, county, 
city, or school district, to choose, adopt and to en- 
force the uniform and exclusive use of any school- 
book or series of schoolbooks in the public schools. 
Second, — To make it unlawful for any principal, super- 
intendent, school committee, board of directors, or 
board of education to select, adopt, prescribe or to 
enforce the uniform and exclusive use of any text- 
book or series of textbooks in any school supported 
by public funds. 
Third, — To unify the work of instruction in the 
schools, and to supply the advantages claimed for 
a uniform and exclusive series of schoolbooks, the 
law should make provision for the preparation, 



362 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

adoption, printing, distribution, and enforcing the 
use of a syllabus, or course of study, for each sub- 
ject prescribed to be taught in the public schools. 
The repeal of these schoolbook laws would auto- 
matically do away with uniformity of schoolbooks. 
There would be no authority for enforcing even class 
uniformity. 

A variety of different schoolbooks on the same 
subject in the hands of the pupils of the same class, 
would insure better instruction in that subject than 
results where all the members of a class are provided 
with a copy of the same schoolbook on that subject. 

We have been seduced into thinking of the textbook 
on a subject, rather than the subject itself. 

Take the subject of arithmetic for example. "The 
science of numbers and the art of computation" exists 
outside of any and all of the textbooks on arithmetic. 
Destroy all the textbooks on arithmetic in the world, 
and the subject of arithmetic would remam, and the 
daily applications of it in the world's calculations would 
go merrily on. 

Even the teaching of the subject in the schools 
would go right along with but slight inconvenience to 
the teachers, and no loss or regret on the part of the 
pupils. 

Much thought and investigation have been given 
to this subject by education experts especially the 
reaction of the child mind to number ideas. As a re- 
sult, there is a fairly definite agreement among teachers 
as to the subject matter that should be taught in each 
grade and the method of presenting it. 

All that is necessary in order to unify and standard- 
ize the work in this subject, as in the other subjects, 
whether in a city system of schools, a county or a 



SOLUTION OF SCHOOLBOOK PROBLEM 363 

state, is for the proper school officials to prepare or to 
have prepared, and adopt a syllabus, or course of 
study in arithmetic based upon the subject of arithmetic 
and not upon any particular textbook. 

This syllabus should be more than an "Outline 
course of study." It should state definitely the subject 
matter to be taught in each grade by terms or semesters, 
their order of presentation, limitations as to types of 
problems and the numbers involved in them, the 
definitions, nomenclature, and approved forms for 
written work. 

The directions to the teacher for testing her pupils 
should be just as definite as the subject-matter assigned 
to her grade to enable her and her pupils to know 
when the work assigned has been accomplished. 

This uniform course of study is all the compulsory 
state, county, township, city or school district uni- 
formity necessary or desirable. 

What about textbooks in arithmetic.'^ 

With such a course of study in the hands of the 
teacher a textbook is not essential especially below 
about the sixth grade. As a matter of convenience if a 
textbook is desirable, the pupil may be directed to 
provide himself with a primary arithmetic or a gram- 
mar school arithmetic, depending upon the pupils age 
and requirements. It makes not the slightest difference 
what author's or publisher's arithmetic he brings. Let 
him bring any book he may have or that he and his 
parents may choose for him. If no other pupil in his 
class has the same kind of a book so much the better 
for him. 

Let us keep in mind the fact that it is the subject of 
arithmetic that the children are to study and not 
some particular textbook on arithmetic; and let us 



364 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

remember that we have been led to beheve that it is 
essential and necessary for all the pupils in the same 
class to have the same kind of a book, to have the same 
lesson assigned on the same page of that book. 

If we could but know the amount of time, thought 
and money that has been expended to establish this 
belief in the necessity for compulsory uniformity of 
schoolbooks by and for those who profit by it, we 
could appreciate how we have come to believe in it. 

There are not less than eighteen "sets" or "series" 
of arithmetics in active competition on the market. 
These eighteen different arithmetics are published by 
fifteen different schoolbook publishers. 

That there are no essential differences in the con- 
tents and treatment of the topics of the subject of 
arithmetic, is evidenced by the fact that the books are 
used interchangeably without apparent inconvenience. 
States, cities, counties and school districts "exchange" 
some one of these eighteen arithmetics for another one 
of the eighteen and the work goes right along without 
any appreciable change in the class assignments, and 
frequently with no change in the course of study. 

Every dollar levied upon the parents as "exchange 
price" is nothing less than reckless, criminal waste. 

How preposterous the proposition that a textbook 
on any subject that was standard and satisfactory for 
students to use from January to June, becomes so 
out-of-date and unsatisfactory that it is made by 
law a "misemeanor" to permit a pupil to continue to 
use it in September of the same year! 

The wonder is that the American people have 
allowed themselves to be duped for so long by this 
specious pretense of the necessity of getting more 
modern methods by changing the schoolbooks. 



SOLUTION OF SCHOOLBOOK PROBLEM 365 

The writer had occasion recently to examine a two 
book series of arithmetics. The titles of the books are 

THE NATIONAL ARITHMETIC 

On the Inductive System 

THE COMMON SCHOOL ARITHMETIC 

An Introduction to the National Arithmetic. 

These books bear the copyright date, 1857, and 
they were printed in 1862. 

The author of this inductive series was none other 
than that famous scholar and teacher, Benjamin Green- 
leaf, A.M. 

In those two books the same topics are treated in 
practically the same order that they are in the eighteen 
series of arithmetics in general use today. The explana- 
tions, definitions and statements of principles are 
models of simplicity, clearness and accuracy, and the 
problems and examples carefully chosen and well 
graded. 

The remark was made at the time that if a student 
or class of students were permitted to use these books 
in their study of arithmetic, he or it would suffer no 
disadvantage in comparison with those pupils who had 
had the advantage of pursuing their studies in any 
one of the eighteen current series of arithmetics. 

Aside from a few terms in measurements such as 
"rood," "furlong," "tierce," and "scruple" not found 
in the more modern books, the treatment of the subject 
of arithmetic compares most favorably with that 
found in current books on the subject. 

If this is true of a series of arithmetics prepared as 
far back as 1857, what might we find from a careful 
examination and comparison of those well-known series 



866 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

that served later generations of students, Ray, Robin- 
son, Fish, White, Werner, Cook-Cropsey and the 
Walsh arithmetics, with the more modern books? 

The fact is that there is a serious question whether 
any of the eighteen series of arithmetics on the market 
today contains enough original material to justify a 
copyright. Each succeeding series of "new" arithmetics 
is a more or less artful compilation from those preced- 
ing it. 

There have been but two series of arithmetics pub- 
lished in the last thirty years that could justly lay 
claim to originality in content and method. These were 
the Werner arithmetics by Frank H. Hall, and the 
Speer arithmetics by William W. Speer. 

With these two exceptions, it may truthfully be 
stated that there is not enough difference in the treat- 
ments of the subject of arithmetic in any widely -used 
arithmetic published within the last twenty-five years, 
and any other arithmetic published within the last 
ten years, to justify any teacher, principal, superin- 
tendent, city, county, or state board of education in 
"outlawing" any one series, adopting any other series, 
and introducing the books at regular introductory 
and exchange rates. 

The teaching of arithmetic would have kept right up 
to present day standards if not a single one of the 
eighteen current series of arithmetics had been com- 
piled, collaborated, and published. 

Far be it from our purpose or intentions to say or 
do anything that would tend to discourage any one 
who thinks he has something worth while to contribute 
to the better teaching of any subject, from writing a 
book or series of books on that subject, or that might 
tend to make his publisher hesitate to publish it. 



SOLUTION OF SCHOOLBOOK PROBLEM 367 

There is no possible danger that we shall ever have 
too many good textbooks on any subject. 

Our plea is that every boy and girl shall be assured 
of the advantage of all the light and side lights possible 
for helping him to see and to understand the subjects 
he may be studying. 

This is the principal reason for our opposition to 
any legalized scheme of uniform textbooks in any 
subject. 

Our discussion thus far, has dealt with the economic 
phases of this pernicious idea of compulsory uniform 
schoolbooks which has such a strangle hold on our 
thought and traditions. 

If our main purpose had been to merely expose the 
plunderings of the patrons of the public schools in the 
name and under the guise of the education of their 
children, we should have considered the game not worth 
the candle. 

The American people are systematically plundered 
in so many other ways and for amounts of money which 
in the aggregate make their schoolbook bills look like 
petty exactions in comparison, that the mere dollars 
and cents phase of the subject is not of itself of so great 
consequence. 

Let us look at the subject from another and more 
important point of view, — the educational side. 

A good textbook on arithmetic, or on any other 
subject for that matter, contains some author's best 
thought upon that subject and his methods of teaching 
it. 

It contains an orderly arrangement of the subject 
by topics under sequential headings. There are defini- 
tions of terms, explanation of principles with illustra- 
tive examples, followed by questions to test the 



368 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

learner's understanding of explanations and principles, 
and problems designed to test the pupils ability to ap- 
ply the principles explained and illustrated in the 
solution of problems. 

Whatever differences may be found in different 
textbooks are simply the differences in the thinking of 
the various authors as expressed in the arrangement of 
material, explanations of principles, illustrative exam- 
ples, questions and problems. 

There may be found differences in the choice of 
material. One author may omit certain topics that 
another retains. One author treats some topics more 
fully than another. 

It is equally true that the same author may treat 
some of his topics clearly and lucidly and others indif- 
ferently and hazily. 

It is a quite common comment heard among teach- 
ers that a certain author's treatment of a certain topic 
is the best that they had seen. It is for this very reason 
that there has never been anything like an agreement 
among the teachers of a subject as to the best standard 
textbook on that subject. Left to themselves to decide 
upon the comparative merits of textbooks on their 
subject, there are quite likely to be as many first choices 
as there are books under consideration. 

It is for this very reason that it so frequently 
happens that a textbook committee in one city, after 
careful examination and comparison of the merits of 
all the different available arithmetics for instance, 
chooses and decides to recommend for adoption a 
series of textbooks on arithmetic, which another text- 
book committee of teachers in an adjoining city, after 
using the books for five years, had voted unanimously 
to discard, and recommend for adoption still another 



SOLUTION OF SCHOOLBOOK PROBLEM 369 

series of books which had been tried in another city 
and found unsatisfactory! 

Beyond the mere question of a slight preference on 
the part of the teacher, the fact remains that if the 
pupils are to be restricted to one particular textbook, it 
is really immaterial which particular text book is 
chosen. 

The opinion is frequently expressed that if all the 
textbooks on a subject were placed in a row on a table 
the books of the same series in a pile, and a child blind- 
folded, was requested to pick out a book or a series 
of books, he would make as discriminating a choice as 
the average textbook committee usually makes. 

If we could but unsaddle ourselves of this burden- 
some belief in the necessity, or the desirability even, of 
all the pupils in a class having the same publisher's 
textbook, the children and the teachers would be free 
indeed to study the subject unfettered by artificial 
limitations. 

Given the teacher, the vital and essential force of 
any educational system; a fair average class of pupils, 
they for whose instruction and training schools are 
established and supported; a definite pedagogical 
course of study, a basic and authoritative guide for 
both teacher and pupils; a school room with fair aver- 
age equipment; and a community of parents actively 
interested in their children's teacher and in the educa- 
tional welfare of their children, and you have the five 
essentials of a good school. We wish to emphasize this 
fact. 

Textbooks, reference books, maps, charts, black- 
boards, crayon, pointer, magazines, pictures and useful 
and usable pieces of apparatus, while desirable and 
helpful are not indispensable. 



370 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

A good school could get along with a scant supply 
of any of these things, while a very poor school might 
be fully outfitted with all of them. 

Textbooks serve to economize time and unneces- 
sary effort on the part of the teacher, and they may be 
used by the pupils to supplement and to complement 
the instructions of the teacher. It is quite possible 
for an earnest and eager student to master a subject 
by the aid of a good textbook on that subject without 
the help of any other teacher. 

A textbook should be prepared with that thought 
always in mind. 

Let us suppose that all textbook laws had been 
repealed and that no school official nor any board of 
officials had any authority to adopt, prescribe, or dic- 
tate what textbook shall be used; and that the teacher 
and parents of the child were free to choose the school- 
book the child will use. 

The teacher's instruction to her pupils would be 
to bring any textbooks they may have on arithmetic, 
reading, geography, United States History, etc. 

The teacher with the requirements of the Course of 
Study for her grade and class and with her acquaint- 
ance with the mental characteristics of each child in 
mind, would begin an examination of each child's 
equipment in the waj^ of needed books. 

With the fetich of uniformity out of her way, this 
teacher concerns herself with an examination of the 
content of each book to determine whether or not this 
book will enable the pupil to meet the requirements of 
the Course of Study for her grade, regardless of the 
name of the publisher, the title of the books or the 
date of its copyright. 

Each case is thus decided upon its merits. 



SOLUTION OF SCHOOLBOOK PROBLEM 371 

If the teacher beheves that a particular book is 
not best for the child, or that the child would be placed 
at a disadvantage by attempting to use it, she will be 
at liberty to say so. But her reasons for saying so 
should be based upon the requirements of the Course of 
Study, the ability of the child and the treatment of 
the topics found in the book. 

If the subject is arithmetic, for example, she would 
probably say, "Tell your father that the teacher thinks 
that this arithmetic is too advanced for you. It is a 
Practical Arithmetic and you should have an Ele- 
mentary Arithmetic or First Book." 

Suppose the class to be a 5B, the first half year of the 
fifth year, and that the work for this class laid out in 
the Course of Study called for a review of reading and 
writing numbers, addition, subtraction, multiplica- 
tion and division, and emphasized common fractions 
as the specific topic for this class. 

In order that our suggestion may be tested to the 
limit, let us suppose that at least one each of the 
eighteen current arithmetics is represented by either 
the First Book of the Two Book Course, or Book Two 
of the Three Book Course. 

Then suppose that the remaining members of this 
class have brought with them the corresponding books 
from that miscellaneous assortment of now discarded 
arithmetics all the way down from Greenleaf to 
Frank Hall. 

In this particular class, each pupil has a different 
book. This would be the ideal arrangement. If there 
is such a thing as a best treatment of the topic of com- 
mon fractions in anyone book, this class will have the 
benefit of that treatment; if on the other hand, there 
is a poor treatment in any of the books, the unfortunate 



Sli LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

user of that book will be set right by the better treat- 
ment in the recitations of the more favored pupils. 

How much better off this class is than another 
class in an adjoining state, where all the pupils and the 
teacher must use the book that gives the poorest treat- 
ment of common fractions. 

This teacher and her pupils have the benefit of all 
the light that has been shed upon the presentation and 
development of common fractions since 1857! 

There may be those who forsee possible confusion 
in the minds of the pupils. 

The object of the study of arithmetic is to enable 
the pupil to understand the principles and facts of the 
subject and to train him in applying his facts in the 
solution of problems. It is evident that the more light 
he has thrown upon any principle the clearer he will 
see it, and the more practice he has in applying that 
principle the more skill he will acquire. 

How often the teacher when explaining what seems 
to her a simple problem, finds it necessary to change 
her wording of her explanation, and to choose a num- 
ber of different illustrations before all her pupils under- 
stand the problem. 

Lawyers, preachers and salesmen as well as teachers 
understand the necessity for stating and restating the 
same principle or proposition from as manj' view points 
as they can marshall with the object of leaving no room 
for a shadow of doubt in the mind of the judge, juror, 
congregation or prospective customer as the case may 
be. 

The individual pupil has all the assistance from his 
book in the preparation of his lesson that he could 
possibly have if all the other members of his class, or 



SOLUTION OF SCHOOLBOOK PROBLEM 373 

all the pupils in his grade in the whole state had the 
same kind of a book as he has. 

But just imagine the difference in the interest in 
the recitation on the part of both teacher and pupils 
awakened by the fact that no two pupils had prepared 
their lesson from the same author's book. They all 
had the same lesson assigned from the same authorized 
Course of Study, but each pupil has had the rare ex- 
perience of looking up, reading and learning for himself 
what his book has for him on the topics assigned. He 
has solved his "ten problems" of the kind assigned 
from the Course of Study, and he is ready to contribute 
what he and his author have to contribute to the 
recitation, and he is eager to hear what his class mates 
have to say. 

Here is the ideal setting for a live and profitable 
recitation. The teacher must have her subject well 
in hand for from this recitation she is likely to hear 
about all that has been contributed in the last fifty 
years to this topic or sub-topic in arithmetic! 

Each pupil's book is his authority; he will offer 
what his book has to say whether it be a definition, a 
statement of principle, an explanation of a process or 
the solution of a problem. 

The teacher is raised to the position of a discriminat- 
ing judge. She must listen with the pupils to the recital 
of authorities, hold her pupils to the topic under 
consideration, frame and ask her questions, the answers 
to which may serve to harmonize apparent differences, 
assign problems for oral solution, and listen to dif- 
ferent "pupils read their problems and explain their 
solutions of them. Neither the teacher, nor any 
of the other pupils may know beforehand the "answer" 
to the problem the pupil is explaining. 



374 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 

We have gone into the subject of Arithmetic some- 
what in detail in order to show how much better that 
subject could be taught from a variety of textbooks 
than from some one textbook. 

Practically all the other elementary and high school 
subjects lend themselves to this topical method of in- 
struction. Take Reading for example. By this plan, 
it would be possible for a class to have the benefit of all 
the school readers published, and at no additional ex- 
pense over that required to provide each pupil with a 
copy of the one adopted book, and there would be no 
need for supplementary reading books ! 

The subject of History is another example of the 
artificial limitation of instruction to the meager con- 
tents of some one adopted textbook. There are no 
less than 21 different textbooks on United States 
History, published and exploited by thirteen enter- 
prising publishers. The prevailing practice is for 
school boards to adopt some one school history for 
uniform and exclusive use. The result of this limita- 
tion of instruction to one author's particular textbook, 
is that the students are taught to remember and to 
believe rather than to think! It gives to school 
authorities the right to determine the particular view- 
point they wish the students to be taught to believe; 
the so-called "Southern," and "Northern" texts on 
school history will serve as an illustration. 

By the simple act of doing away with compulsory 
uniformity in schoolbooks, the one continuous scandal 
that has been a disturbing factor in the schools almost 
from the beginning would be eliminatd. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



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